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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OP ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 



SPECIAL REPORT 



ON 



DISEASES OF CATTLE 



AND ON 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

Dr. D. E. SALMON, 

CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, 

Drs. MDRR ! Y, ATKINSON, HARBATJGH, LOWE, LAW, DICKSON, TRUMBOWER, 
SMITH, AND Prof. HENRY. 



PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 



WASHINGTON": 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
18 92. 



U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 



SPECIAL REPORT 



ON 



DISEASES OF CATTLE 



AND ON 



CATTLE FEEDING. 



PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

Dr. D. E. SALMON, 

CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, 

BY 

Drs. MURRAY, ATKINSON, HARBAUGH, LOWE, LAW, DICKSON, TRUMBOWER, 
SMITH, AND Prof. HENRY. 




PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE,; '■ 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVEENMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
18 92. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Letter of Transmittal, 

By Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of Bureau 7 

Administration of Medicines, 

By A. J. Murray, M. E. C. V. S 9 

Diseases of the Digestive Organs, 

By A. J. Murray, M. E. C. V. S 15 

Poisons and Poisoning, 

By the late V. T. Atkinson, V. S 63 

Diseases of the Heart and Blood- Vessels, 

By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S 77 

Noncontagious Diseases of the Organs of Respiration, 

By Dr. William Herbert Lowe 101 

Diseases of the Nervous System, 

By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S '. Ill 

Diseases of the Urinary Organs, 

By James Law, F.E. C.V. S 137 

Diseases of the Generative Organs, 

By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 169 

Diseases following Parturition, 

By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 235 

Diseases of Young Calves, 

By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 267 

Bones — Diseases and Accidents, 

By the late V. T. Atkinson, V. S 281 

Surgical Operations, 

By the late Dr. William Dickson and Dr. William Herbert Lowe . . 301 
Tumors, 

By Dr. William Herbert Lowe 321 

Diseases of the Shin, 

By M. E. Trumbower, D. V. S 325 

Diseases of the Foot, 

By M. E. Trumbower, D. V. S 349 

Diseases of the Eye and its Appendages, 

By M. E. Trumbower, D. V. S 353 

Diseases of the, Ear, 

By M. E. Trumbower, D. V. S 367 

Infectious Diseases of Cattle, 

By Drs. D. E. Salmon and Theobald Smith 371 

The Feeding and Management of Cattle, 

By Prof. W. A. Henry.... :...:;;;.:::: ;; :::.::..:. 439 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. The position of the rumen 62 

y'll. Stomach of ruminant 62 

i III. Miscellaneous — Clinical thermometer; simple probang; grasp- 
ing or forceps probaug; "wooden gag; trocar and canula; sec- 
tion showing hernia 62 

IV. Microscopic anatomy of the liver 62 

V. Ergot in hay 62 

• VI. Ergotism 62 

1 VII. Diagram of the circulation 100 

VIII. The position of the lung 110 

IX . Kidney and generative organs 168 

X . Microscopic anatomy of the kidney 168 

"'XL Calculi of kidney and bladder 168 

" XII. Foetal calf within its membranes 234 

' XIII. Pregnant uterus with cotyledons 234 

. XIV. Vessels of umbilical cord 234 

XV. Normal position of calf in utero 234 

' XVI. Abnormal positions of calf in utero 234 

XVII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero 234 

XVIII. Twin pregnancy; abdominal dropsy of the fetus; crotchet for- 
ceps ; clamp for ear, skin, etc 234 

XIX. Monstrosities 234 

XX. Instruments used in difficult labor 234 

XXI. Instruments used in difficult labor 234 

i/XXII. Supports for prolapsed uterus 266 

XXIII. Supports for prolapsed uterus 266 

XXIV. Instrument for opening milk canal; Bistouri cache"; spring teat 

dilator; ring teat syphon; gutta-percha bougie; truss for 

navel hernia ; iron clamp for navel hernia 266 

J XXV. Skeleton of the cow 300 

XXVI. Devices for casting cattle 320 

XXVII. Tracheotomy and venesection 320 

* XXVIII. Surgical instruments and sutures 320 

i/XXIX. Bacilli and micrococci of contagious diseases 376 

l/XXX. Upper surface of the lungs of the ox 388 

XXXI. Broncho-pneumonia 388 

XXXII. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia 388 

v XXXIII. Infarctions in pleuro-pneumonia 388 

XXXIV. Tuberculosis of the lungs 408 

XXXV. Tuberculosis of the liver 408 

XXXVI. A lymph gland laid open 408 

XXXVII. Tuberculosis of the omentum (caul) 408 

5 



6 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 
Plate XXXVIII. Lymphatic gland of mesentery cut open ; omentum or caul 

resting upon the paunch i08 

1 XXXIX. Actinomycosis of the jaw 416 

XL. Actinomycosis of the lungs 416 

XLI. Actinomycosis of the jaw 416 

XLII. Spleen in health and in Texas fever 438 

1 XLIII. The liver and the urine in Texas fever. The microorganism 



of Texas fever 



438 



XLIV. The cattle tick, the carrier of Texas fever 438 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 



IT. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Animal Industry, 

Washington, D. C, May 14, 1892. 

Sir : I have the honor to submit herewith a report upon the diseases 
of cattle, to which has been added a section upon cattle-feeding, the 
whole forming the second volume of the series of reports upon the dis- 
eases of the domesticated animals. The large demand for and the great 
popularity of the report on the diseases of the horse has been an addi- 
tional reason for adhering as closely as possible to the plan adopted in 
the preparation of that volume. In preparing the illustrations for the 
report on diseases of cattle an effort has been made to supplement, as 
far as possible, the illustrations which appeared in the report on the 
diseases of the horse, so that the two series would together cover the 
field of veterinary surgery, which it is important to present to the 
reader in a graphic manner. On account of the importance of the ali- 
mentation as a factor in the maintenance of health and cure of disease, 
as well as in the profitable management of cattle, a section has been 
added on cattle-feeding, which has been written both from a practical 
and scientific point of view. This may justly be regarded as the clear- 
est and most succinct presentation of this subject which has ever been 
published, while it is probably the only article of the kind in which the 
results of the latest scientific researches have been incorporated. 

The writer has seen no reason to change his views, presented in the 
letter of transmittal accompanying the report on the diseases of the 
horse, as to the value of such publications to the farmers of the coun- 
try. On the contrary, many letters have been received testifying that 
the writers had saved valuable animals by following the advice given 
in that report. In most of these cases it has been stated that no vet- 
erinarian was accessible, and that except for the report the animals 
would have been without intelligent treatment. In so large a country 
as ours there must for years to come be many sections in which no 
skilled veterinarian is located, and, consequently, there must continue 
to be many demands from stock-owners for information of this kind. 

It is well, however, to remind the reader who has not made a special 
study of this subject that it would be absurd for him to conclude that 
even with the best of books he can treat his animals as well as they 

7 



8 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

could be treated by a properly educated veterinarian. Careful study 
of the allied sciences and practical experience are as necessary to make 
a man successful in the treatment of diseased animals as in the case of 
sick people. The employment of a veterinarian is, therefore, advisable 
in all cases where a competent one can be obtained. In the many 
cases, however, where professional examination of the affected animal 
is out of the question, the reader may feel assured that the treatment 
here recommended is safe and the best that can be advised for his use. 

It is hoped that this volume may have an important influence in 
bringing about more intelligent and more humane care and treatment 
of animals in health and disease. To this end the writers of the sev- 
eral sections have been requested to give a brief description of the 
various organs of the animal body, and a statement of their normal 
functions. This information is essential to a proper understanding of 
the nature of disease or the principles of treatment. When carefully 
studied it should do much to prevent the unnecessarily cruel and inju- 
rious practices which are still too common in the treatment of sick ani- 
mals even in our enlightened country. 

It is plain from what has just been said that this report has been 
prepared for the farmer and stock-owner rather than for the student or 
veterinarian. As much practical information as possible has been 
brought together on the subjects treated, but it has been stated in brief 
and plain language. Eeaders desiring a more detailed account of any 
subject are referred to the various special treatises. Notwithstanding 
the popular character of this work there is no doubt that it will be found 
useful to the veterinarian as well as to the farmer. The preceding 
volume of the series is found on the shelves of many practitioners who 
regard it as the most valuable work in their library, and it is believed 
that the accompanying report will be equally serviceable. 
Very respectfully, 

D. E. Salmon, 
Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Hon. J. M. Busk, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 



SPECIAL REPORT 

ON 

DISEASES OF CATTLE AND ON CATTLE FEEDING. 



ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES. 



By A. J. MURRAY, M. R. C. V. S., Detroit, Mich. 



As medicines may be given in different ways, we will consider in detail 
the most common methods of administering them to bovine animals. 

BY THE MOUTH. 

Medicines may be given by the mouth in the form of draughts or 
drenches, powders, electuaries, and balls or pills. 

Draughts or drenches. — This is the form in which medicine is usually 
given to cattle. The medicine should be dissolved in water, beer, or 
any other suitable liquid. Medicines which are soluble should be well 
shaken up with the liquid in which they are given, so as to insure their 
complete solution. For example, if we are giving an ounce of sweet 
spirits of niter the medicine should be shaken up with at least half a 
pint of water before giving it. If instead of doing this we give the 
medicine without diluting it, a sore and inflamed condition of the mouth 
and throat is produced. The materials which enter into the composi- 
tion of some drenches are not soluble, that is, no amount of shaking 
will dissolve them in the liquid in which they are given. As examples 
of such medicines we may mention powdered ginger, powdered gentian, 
and carbonate of iron, but by shaking they may be temporarily sus- 
pended in the liquid in which they are given, so that by agitating such 
medicines while in the act of giving them they are temporarily mixed 
with the liquid and may consequently be given in a draught, though 
not quite so easily as medicines that are soluble. In giving drenches 
we must always ascertain to what degree the medicine or medicines 
composing the drench should be diluted. Carelessness in this matter 

9 



10 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

may be attended with dangerous and even fatal consequences, and it is 
well to make it a rule not to give medicines unless they are prescribed 
by some one who is competent to give directions in such matters. Of 
course this rule will not apply to those who possess a sufficient knowl- 
edge of medicine to prevent a mistake being made. In giving a drench 
to an ox the hand should be passed in front of the horns and the fingers 
take hold of the septum nasi (partition between the nostrils) ; the nose 
should be raised in a slightly upward direction, and the neck of the bot- 
tle should then be introduced at the side of the mouth so as to allow the 
medicine to flow gradually out of the bottle. In doing this the animal's 
neck should not be twisted to the side on which the person adminis- 
tering the medicine stands, nor should the nose be raised higher than is 
necessary to allow the draught to flow easily down the throat. The 
neck and head ought to form a straight line of which the nose is the 
highest point. When an animal is inclined to resist it is necessary for 
an assistant to take hold of the horns so as to steady the head, and in 
this way to assist the person giving the medicine. If the animal tries 
to cough the head should be released for two or three minutes. 

Powders. — The medicines which are to be given in the form of pow- 
der should be pulverized or finely divided, and also should be well 
mixed together if there are several ingredients in the powder. Mate- 
rials should not be used in making up powders which will exercise a 
caustic or irritating action on the mouth, or which are possessed of a 
nauseating and disagreeable taste. As powders are usually mixed with 
food it is obvious that substances possessing a disagreeable taste will 
be refused by the animals to which they are given. 

Electuaries are frequently used in treating sore throat, or when an 
animal is troubled with a cough. Electuaries are usually composed of 
a powder, such as chlorate of potash or alum, which is rubbed into a 
thick paste with sirup or molasses and is then smeared on the animal's 
tongue with a flat wooden spoon. Any powder, however, may be given 
in the form of an electuary as long as it is not possessed of caustic and 
irritating properties, or is not chemically unsuitable for giving in this 
way. 

Balls or pills, though frequently used in treating the diseases of the 
horse, are not well adapted for the treatment of diseases of cattle. As 
cattle have four stomachs, solids pass rather slowly through these capa- 
cious digestive organs, so that very few veterinary practitioners resort 
to this form of administering medicine, which is found to be much less 
effectual than when it is dissolved or mixed with liquid. 

BY THE BOWEL. 

Injections of medicinal agents. — When the mouth is swollen or affected 
in such a manner that administration of medicine by that way is not 
practicable, the agent to be used may, after proper dilution, be given 
by the rectum, but it is usual to give a double dose when it is adminis- 



ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES. 11 

tered by this channel, as the action of medicine is less prompt and pow- 
erful than when given by the mouth. Before giving medicine in this 
way the rectum should first be emptied by a warm water injection. 

Enemata or injections of hot water are also used in cases of constipa- 
tion. It is unnecessary to mention what the temperature of water 
should be for giving an injection, as no one ever uses a thermometer to 
ascertain the temperature of water which is to be used for this purpose. 
When the hand is placed in the water to be used the water should feel 
pleasantly warm, and an injection should never be given without first 
testing the temperature of the water with the hand. Two quarts is a 
sufficient quantity to use as an injection, and if it is desired to render 
the injection stimulating a little soap may be added, though it should 
be borne in mind that the injection will be retained longer if no soap is 
added to it. If it is therefore desired that the injection should be 
retained as long as possible it is best not to add soap. We may men- 
tion that injections are not so much used, nor do they prove as servicea- 
ble in treating the diseases of the ox as they do in those of the horse. 

Suppositories. — A suppository is usually composed of agents which 
exercise a soothing and anodyne effect on the part to which it is applied, 
and this effect is in time diffused to the adjoining parts. It is depos- 
ited in the rectum in the solid form and is usually cone-shaped. The 
rectum should be evacuated before introducing the suppository. They 
are not frequently used in veterinary practice. 

BY THE VAGINA. 

xnflammation is sometimes set up in the walls of the vagina, which 
may be occasioned by the bull during service, or while the calf is being 
extracted during difficult labor. In such cases the antiseptic and heal- 
ing agent should be dissolved in tepid water and applied once or twice 
a day to the affected parts with a syringe. When the cleaning (pla- 
centa) has been retained in the womb instead of coming away shortly 
after calving, a purulent (mattery) discharge is set up, which is com- 
monly known as the whites (leucorrhea). In such cases the womb 
should be washed out daily by connecting a long flexible tube with a 
syringe, which is passed by the hand into the mouth of the womb so as 
to wash out, cleanse, and set up a healing action in the surface of that 
organ. 

BY THE NOSTRILS. 

Inhalation. — Medicinal agents which are volatile — that is, capable 
of being diffused in the air — are sometimes administered in this way. 
The object may be to diffuse a certain quantity of gas, such as chlorine 
or sulphurous acid gas in the air of a stable, which the animals sub- 
jected to such treatment must breathe for a certain length of time. 
This system of treatment is frequently resorted to wlien the bronchial 
tubes of young cattle are infested with worms. Volatile agents, such as 



12 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

chloroform and sulphuric ether, are frequently administered in this way. 
If a cloth is saturated with chloroform or sulphuric ether and applied to 
one of the animal's nostrils while the other nostril breathes air, the vapor 
of either of the before-mentioned agents will pass through the nostrils 
into the lungs, but the wet cloth applied to the nostril should be cov- 
ered with a dry one, folded several times on itself, so as to prevent the 
vapor escaping into the air. This medicinal treatment may alsobe applied 
in verminous bronchitis above mentioned, and it is also employed by 
surgeons to prevent an animal feeling the pain which attends an ope- 
ration, though in the latter case the administration of the vapor must 
be carried to the extent of producing insensibility, and should only be 
applied for this purpose by a veterinarian. 

Insufflation. — The agent to be employed in insufflation must be in the 
form of a fine powder, which is blown up the animal's nostrils. This 
mode of treatment is seldom employed in cattle diseases. 

BY THE WINDPIPE. 

The method of injecting medicines into the windpipe should only be 
applied by veterinarians. 

BY THE VEINS. 

What is termed intravenous injection, or the injection of medicinal 
agents into the veins, is not much practiced, and should only be resorted 
to by veterinarians. 

BY THE SKIN. 

Rubbing the agent on the shin. — This method of applying medicine is 
practiced chiefly in parasitic diseases, and the end aimed at is to destroy 
the parasite whether it be of an animal or a vegetable nature. In mak- 
ing such applications that form of ointment which will enable the opera- 
tor by rubbing to work the medicinal agent thoroughly into the skin 
should be preferred. In applying an ointment to the skin of cattle it 
is desirable to avoid the use of poisonous materials, such as mercury 
and arsenic. Instances have frequently happened in which, when j>oi- 
sonous ingredients have been used in making anointment, that the ani- 
mals have licked themselves after it has been applied, and have conse- 
quently been poisoned. Another source of danger when poisonous 
ointments or solutions are employed is that animals affected with a skin 
disease frequently present raw patches of skin on different parts of 
their bodies, and it has frequently been found that when the solution 
or ointment is applied on such raw surfaces absorption takes place, 
and dangerous and even fatal results are rapidly produced. The treat- 
ment of skin diseases not unfrequently is unsuccessful owing to the fail- 
ure to wash the skin well with soap and water so as to remove scabs 
and thus to allow the ointment to be applied thoroughly to the affected 
parts. When animals are affected with neuralgic or irritating forms of 



ADMINISTEATION OF MEDICINES. 13 

skin disease, local applications are of great service in allaying irritation 
or pains. 

Subcutaneous injection. — Medicines are sometimes injected beneath 
the skin so that they may be absorbed and pass into the blood. This 
method of administering medicine is becoming more extensively used, 
and in various forms of disease proves of great service; but the practice 
of it is limited to veterinarians, as it requires special instruments and 
a special knowledge of the medicines and also of the modes of prepar- 
ing them, to administer medicine in this way. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



By A. J. MURRAY, M. R. C. V. S., Detroit, Mich. 



It is not proposed to enter into any elaborate consideration of the 
nature and chemical composition of food under this title, but rather to 
touch on such general aspects of this subject as are within the experi- 
ence of farmers, with the view of indicating what may be done to pre- 
vent the occurrence of disease. It is a matter of general experience that 
disorder of the digestive organs is frequently occasioned by defects in 
the quality of the food supplied to cattle. Hay which is coarse and 
fibrous overtasks the digestive powers, irritates tbe mucous surface of 
the stomachs and bowels, and may lead to a torpid and inactive condi- 
tion of the stomachs, or when it acts on the bowels may lead to the de- 
velopment of dysentery. Timothy hay may be of good quality for feeding 
to horses, but when fed to cows, especially those which do not get 
exercise, it will produce a constipated condition of the bowels. Hay 
fed to cattle should always contain a considerable proportion of clover, 
which, from its laxative effect, keeps their bowels in a natural condition. 

Food which is finely divided, such as corn meal and fine middlings, 
fed alone, is not adapted for the digestive organs of cattle. It does not 
pass readily through the stomachs, and frequently gives rise to severe 
attacks of indigestion. When fine middlings and corn meal are used 
they should be mixed up with chopped hay, or what is commonly known 
as cut feed, as this tends to prevent those finely divided foods clogging 
together and giving rise to fermentation in the stomach, and they should 
even then be used in moderate quantity. The chemical composition of 
a food is not always a safe criterion for estimating its value. Its digest- 
ibility must always be taken into consideration, as the physical charac- 
ters may render it liable to disorder digestion. Hay which has been 
much exposed to the rain while drying is innutritious and is likely to 
produce inflammatory affections of the stomach and bowels, and the 
Same remark will apply to musty oats; Ergot not only diminishes the 
nutritive value of hay, but has a special effect in producing gangrene 1 
Of the extremities, which is best counteracted by feeding roots to cattle 
when it is absolutely necessary to feed them on hay made from ergoted 
grass. (See Plate v.) Rusty straw is also a dangerous article of food, 
and will produce disease if fed to cattle. Smut on corn impairs its 

15 



16 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

nutritive qualities, and animals which are fed on such corn lose weight, 
so it appears also to interfere with assimilation. In some instances the 
indigestion which smutty corn produces terminates in inflammation of 
the fourth stomach and portions of the intestinal canal. In what 
is termed "cornstalk disease," indigestion followed by delirium and 
coma is produced in cattle by feeding them on corn which is supposed 
by some writers to be infested by a minute parasitic fungus. These 
living organisms are found on the lower leaves of the corn, which, when 
invaded by those parasites, has a dwarfed appearance. The diseased 
leaves become yellowish- green, then yellow, and then wither away. 
Upon closer examination it will usually be seen that there are certain 
spots, more especially about the base of the leaf, which is closely 
wrapped around the stalk, having a different discoloration. These are 
brown, watery-looking objects at first; then darker, and finally dead. 
Occasionally there are livid red spots and patches in the same situa- 
tion. These specially affected spots vary in size from mere points to 
those of several inches across, often longer, in the direction of the 
veins of the leaf or leaf sheath (Burrill). Whenever this disease ap- 
pears in a cornfield it is advised that every stalk and leaf in the field 
should be burned, and that the field be seeded down to grass. The 
writer has observed during some years, and usually after a spell of dry, 
warm weather, that cattle grazing on pastures usually considered as 
sound and healthy have become affected with indigestion, followed by 
delirium and coma, but he has been unable to satisfy himself as to the 
causation of such outbreaks of disease. The explanation of such facts 
remains a matter of future investigation. Grass growing on wet, 
marshy land is favorable to the production of dysentery, and we have 
sometimes seen animals die suddenly while grazing on such pastures, 
and have traced such deaths to a form of anthrax introduced through 
the digestive system. Frozen turnips and potatoes produce very dan- 
gerous attacks of indigestion when eaten by cattle, and grass which is 
wet by dew or rain, or covered with hoarfrost, should also be regarded 
as dangerous. The sudden chilling of the stomachs when a quantity 
of such food is eaten arrests digestion and will also occasion cramp of 
the stomach and bowels. 

Causes. — In tracing out the causation of disease we find in not a few 
instances that excess is the disturbing element, instead of quality. For 
example, when cattle are turned into a new and rather luxuriant pas- 
ture severe attacks of indigestion may result from their eating too 
greedily, and it is well, under such circumstances, to allow them in such 
pastures for only a comparatively short time each day, until they 
become accustomed to their richer and more tempting herbage. The 
same idea may be applied to different kinds of food which, though 
wholesome when partaken of moderately, become dangerous when used 
to excess. 

The manner of eating may also produce indigestion, as food hastily 
eaten and consequently imperfectly masticated is not properly prepared 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 17 

for the action of the stomachs. Circumstances, of course, must sug- 
gest what ought to be done to prevent the injurious action of this 
cause. 

Water should always be supplied to cattle in sufficient quantity. 
Excess here may prove very injurious, and may occasion cramp in the 
fourth stomach. If animals have access to water at all times, or at 
least frequently, there is no danger of their suffering from drinking to 
excess. In this connection we may state that it is better for cattle to 
have rock salt placed within their reach, so that they may lick as much 
as they feel inclined to do, rather than to mix salt in their food, as in 
the latter case there is a danger of their getting too much, thus engen- 
dering excessive thirst. It has been customary lately to recommend 
hot water as the usual drink for cattle during cold weather, and it is 
claimed that they are kept in better condition by supplying them with 
hot water instead of cold water. The argument is put forward that a 
large quantity of heat is lost in raising the cold water drank to the 
temperature of the animal's body, and that this large consumption of 
heat must increase the waste of the tissues. This is an exclusively 
chemical way of looking at the matter, and we think it should rather 
be regarded from the standpoint of what effect such a practice would 
have on the future health, endurance, and vitality of cattle. While we 
are aware from experience that cramp of the stomach is sometimes pro- 
duced by cattle drinking ice-cold water, we think that the o.ther extreme 
of supplying them with hot water is not to be recommended, as it must 
render them extremely sensitive to any occasional or accidental change 
which might take place in this sort of regimen. The question has also 
to be decided as to what would be the ultimate effect of such a practice 
on the digestive systems. A short experience of this method of water- 
ing cattle can not be held to settle the question of its advantages and 
disadvantages. 

Hard water or water containing a large proportion of inorganic con- 
stituents is not to be regarded as good drinking water. We have seen 
water which had been rendered hard artificially, by adding a little lime 
to it, produce colic to such an extent when it was used for drinking 
water that its use had to be abandoned. 

A large proportion of organic matter is also a source of danger, and 
should be guarded against. It usually is contaminated by a well or 
stream being so situated as to receive the drainage of some accumula- 
tion of filth, though water in marshy localities frequently contains a 
high proportion of organic constituents, and is consequently objection- 
able. We need hardly say that water contaminated by the dead bodies, 
of animals is to be regarded as dangerous, as here we have the further 
danger that it may become the vehicle of communicating specific dis- 
eases. 

24697—2 



18 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 
WOUNDS AND CONTUSIONS OF THE LIPS. 

The lips may become inflamed from contusions, whicli are some- 
times produced by a blow from the horns of another animal, or in the 
case of working oxen it may be produced by a blow from the driver. 
While cattle are grazing they are sometimes bitten in the lips by ser- 
pents, more especially when they are pastured in woods. 

Symptoms. — As a result of a contusion the lips become thick and 
swollen, and if treatment is neglected the swelling becomes hard and 
indurated. This condition renders it difficult for the animal to get food 
into its mouth, on account of the lips having lost their natural flexibil- 
ity. In such cases an ox will protrude his tongue and endeavor to 
bring the food into his mouth with that organ. In cases of snake-bite 
the limits of the swelling are not well defined ; it is soft and compara- 
tively painless. 

Treatment. — When we have to deal with a bruise, which is easily dis- 
tinguished from a snake-bite by the different train of symptoms which 
are produced, the affected part should be bathed steadily for three or 
four hours with the following solution: Muriate of ammonia, 1 ounce; 
water, 2 pints. In recent cases no other treatment will be required, 
but if the swelling is not recent and has become hard or indurated, then 
the swollen part should be gentry rubbed every second day with oil of 
turpentine until the swelling has subsided. In snake-bite a straight 
incision penetrating into the flesh or muscle should be made across the 
center of the wound, and then a similar incision, but passing crosswise 
of the first, should be made. This is what surgeons term a " crucial " 
incision. After this has been done a small wad of cotton batting should 
be pressed against the wounds until the bleeding has almost stopped. 
Afterwards the following lotion may be applied to the wounds several 
times a day: Permanganate of potash, half a dram; distilled water, 1 
pint. As snake-bites are usually attended with considerable depression, 
which may terminate in stupor, it is advisable to give doses of whisky 
at intervals. Half a pint of whisky mixed with a pint of water should 
be given, and the dose should be repeated in half an hour if the animal 
is sinking into a stupefied and unconscious condition. The repetition of 
the dose must depend on the symptoms which the animal shows. It 
must be borne in mind that the object of treatment is to ward off the 
stupor, which is one of the results of snake-bite, and that in adminis- 
tering whisky the object is to produce a stimulating and not an intoxi- 
cating or stupefying effect. 

SALIVATION. 

Salivation is a symptom of some general or local disorder. It may, 
therefore, be a symptom of a general disease, such as rabies or the foot- 
and-mouth disease (epizootic aphtha), or it may be a jrarely local trou- 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 19 

ble, as when copious secretion of the salivary glands is produced by 
animals eating irritating plants, such as wild mustard. In cases where 
saliva is observed to dribble from the mouth that part must be care- 
fully examined by introducing an instrument like a balling-iron into the 
mouth, or if such an instrument is not at hand, by grasping the tongue 
and partially withdrawing it from the mouth while all parts of the 
mouth are exposed to a good light, so that the presence of any foreign 
substance may be detected. The cause will sometimes be found to 
depend on a short piece of wood becoming fixed on the palate, its two 
ends resting on the upper molar teeth of each side ; or it may depend 
on a needle, thorn, or splinter of wood becoming imbedded in the tongue. 
Sometimes a sharp piece of tin or other metal may become partially 
imbedded in the inner surface of the cheek. Hay occasionally possesses 
some quality which produces salivation, though only in some animals. 
Another cause of salivation is cattle which have been rubbed with 
mercurial ointment (see Mercurial Poisons, p. 69), licking themselves. 
Such cases, of course, arise from the constitutional action of mercury T 
and indicate the danger of using such a prei)aration externally, on 
account of the common habit which the animals have of licking them- 
selves. 

Treatment. — If salivation depends on the irritation and inflammation 
set up by the ingestion of acid plants, or forage possessing some j)ecu- 
liar stimulating property, a lotion composed of an ounce of powdered 
alum dissolved in a quart of water should be syringed into the mouth 
twice a day, using half a pint of the solution each time. If, however, 
the salivation depends on the presence of a thorn, splinter of wood, or 
any other foreign substance imbedded in the cheek or tongue, remove 
the offending object and wash the mouth occasionally with a weak solu- 
tion of carbolic acid and tepid water. When salivation is produced by 
mercurial poisoning or by the foot-and-mouth disease (epizootic aphtha), 
the treatment appropriate to those general conditions of the system, as 
well as the local treatment, must be applied. 

IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH. 

Irregularities of the teeth may be occasioned by the unequal wearing 
of some of the teeth or by some of the incisors being broken, which may 
happen when cattle are pastured on sandy or gravelly soil. The molar 
teeth may also show irregular wear from similar causes. Their edges 
may become sharp, or it may happen that a molar tooth has been acci- 
dentally fractured. It may also occur that a supernumerary tooth has 
developed in an unusual position, and that it interferes with the natu- 
ral and regular mastication of the food. 

Treatment. — The mouth may be examined by grasping the animal's 
tongue with one hand and partially withdrawing it from the mouth, so 
as to expose the incisor and molar teeth to inspection. When it is 



20 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

desired, however, to examine the molar teeth with the fingers, so as to 
obtain a more precise idea of their condition, an instrument like the ball- 
ing-iron which is used for the horse should be introduced into the mouth > 
so as to separate the jaws and keep them apart while the examina- 
tion is being made. Any sharp edges of the molars must be removed 
by the tooth-rasp. Any supernumerary tooth which interferes with 
mastication or any tooth which is fractured or loose should be extracted. 
In performing such operations it is desirable to throw or cast the ox, 
and to have its head held securely, so as to enable the operator to do 
what is necessary without difficulty. 

CARIES OF THE TEETH. 

The presence of caries may be suspected if the mouth exhales a bad 
odor, and if the animal occasionally stops during mastication as if it 
were in pain. The existence of caries in a molar tooth may be ascer- 
tained by examining the mouth in the manner already described. If 
one of the molars is found to be carious it should be extracted, if the 
caries is so extensive as to render other means of treatment impracti- 
cable. When the crown of the tooth has been destroyed and only the 
stump or root is left, extraction will be impracticable. In such cases it 
is best to sell the animal to the butcher. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE JAWBONES — BIG-JAW — LUMP-JAW. 

[Plates xxxix, xli.] 

The disease which we have now to consider is generally known among 
farmers and cattle dealers under the two latter designations. Atten- 
tion is first directed to the animal by a swelling or enlargement of the 
jawbone, and the opinion generally exrjressed when such a swelling is 
observed is that the animal has received some severe contusion which 
has been the starting point of the swelling. It is found, however, that 
when a blow or contusion is the starting point of such a swelling it 
rarely if ever ulcerates, and that the continuous application of cold 
water checks the growth of a swelling which is merely the result of 
mechanical injury. In the disease we are now considering, however, 
the application of cold water does not exercise the least influence in 
checking its progress. The swelling described may affect either the 
upper or lower jaw, or it may affect both at the same time, and pro- 
duce considerable swelling of the soft tissues as well as enlargement of 
the bony structure. As a result of the swelling described the molar 
teeth of the upper and lower jaws may be pushed out of their natural 
position so that they are no longer in apposition, and they. consequently 
cau not serve the purpose of masticating the food. It may also happen 
that from degeneration of the tooth- sockets the teeth drop out. This 
result may be suspected when the animal becomes unable to masticate 
its food. As a result of ulceration it frequently happens that an open- 



Diseases of the digestive organs. 21 

ing forms oti tlie external part of the tumor, and frequently a similar 
destructive process forms an opening into tlie mouth itself. 

In a recent work, in treating of this subject, I have remarked that 
in some cases it will be observed that these swellings, after growing 
for a short time, remain in a stationary condition — the growth appears 
to be arrested. Such cases will not require treatment, as the arrest of 
the growth of the swelling is no doubt caused by the death of the para- 
site, which ceases to reproduce itself and thenceforth becomes harm- 
less. The living xDarasite, by rapidly reproducing itself, extends 
through the bony tissue, and by setting up inflammation causes a rapid 
increase of the swelling. The aim of treatment then is to destroy the 
parasite, thereby arresting the growth of the swelling ; and this is all 
that can be done, where the utmost success practicable is attained. The 
importance of early treatment will, however, be understood when it is 
remembered that there is a continued and rapid multiplication of the 
parasite, and that this multiplication is attended with increasing 
damage to the tissues of the animal in which it is lodged. 

Treatment. — When there is an external opening on the surface of the 
swelling it should be injected with tincture of iodine. When there is 
no external opening several incisions should be made through the skin 
covering the swelling, and portions of the outer xDlate of the jaw-bone 
should be removed with a trephine, and tincture of iodine injected into 
the orifices thus made. This treatment should be applied daily, and 
may be continued until it is apparent that the growth of the swelling 
has been checked. The iodine checks the growth of the swelling by 
destroying the parasite whose continuous development is the means of 
setting up diseased action in the bone. Other methods have been 
applied in treating this disease, such as burning the diseased bone with 
the hot iron, which is said to have proved effectual in checking the 
progress of the disease. But remedies whose action is diffused exten- 
sively through the diseased tissues are to be preferred in treating a dis- 
ease of this nature. 

INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF MOUTH — STOMATITIS. 

The membrane of the mouth may become inflamed by cattle eating 
some irritating substance, by eating acid plants, or little vesicles may 
form in the mouths of calves when they are affected with indigestion, 
constituting what is termed aphtha. 

Symptoms. — The saliva dribbles from the mouth, and when it is ex- 
amined the surface of the tongue and other parts of the mouth will 
appear red and inflamed. When young animals are affected with the 
form of disease termed aphtha small red elevations will be observed on 
the tongue and other parts of the mouth, having little white points on 
their centers, which consist of the epithelium of the mucous membrane 
raised into vesicles. These white patches are succeeded by ulcerated 



22 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

surfaces, which are exposed by the shedding of the white patches of 
epithelium. 

Treatment. — When there is merely a reddened and inflamed condition 
Of the mucous membrane of the mouth, it will suffice to syringe it out 
several times a day with 4 ounces of the following solution: Alum, 1 
ounce ; water, 2 pints. When the edges of the tongue and other parts 
Of the mouth are studded with ulcers these should be painted over once 
a day with the following solution until the affected surface is healed : 
Iodoform, 60 grains; ether, 1 ounce. When indigestion is associated 
with an ulcerated condition of the mouth that disorder requires sepa- 
rate treatment. 

GANGRENOUS STOMATITIS — GANGRENE OF THE MOUTH IN YOUNG 

CALVES. 

This affection usually appears in young calves about the time when 
they are cutting their molar teeth. 

Causes. — Insufficient nourishment, the debility resulting from diarrhea 
and from inflammation of the umbilicus (navel) predispose animals to 
this disease, and, as already mentioned, its development is associated 
with disorder of the digestive system resulting from the cutting of the 
molar teeth. I may mention, however, that I have seen this disease 
affect cows quite severely, though they afterwards made a complete 
recovery. This malady then may affect mature animals and may arise 
from conditions which at present are unknown. It is asserted by Hill, 
in his work on diseases of the ox, that this is a tuberculous disease, but 
the fact that animals may recover completely in three or four weeks 
renders it surprising that he should have made such a statement. That 
the calf of a tuberculous cow may become affected with gangrenous 
stomatitis, or that in a few instances traces of tuberculous disease have 
been found in the bodies of aniinals that have died from it, are mere 
coincidences, and lend no weight to the opinion that this malady is of 
a tuberculous nature. The same writer says this disease may assume 
a diphtheritic type, but diphtheria is contagious and is characterized by 
the production of false membrane, while the most prominent feature of 
this disease is the extent to which death of the affected tissues takes 
place, which differentiates it from both tuberculosis and diphtheria. 

Symptoms.-^ln the early stage there is redness of the mouth, from 
which the saliva dribbles, but in two or three days a whitish point 
appears on some part of the mucous membrane of the mouth. It grad- 
ually extends in size and depth, and a red, inflamed zone surrounds the 
affected part, which begins to present a yellowish, cheesy appearance, 
and then, as it begins to break up and decompose, exhales a fetid, dis- 
agreeable odor. Sometimes the entire thickness of a portion of the 
tissues composing the cheek becomes gangrenous. If the decayed part 
is not removed by the knife it is gradually separated from the surround- 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 23 

ing living' tissues by the process of ulceration. In this way an aperture 
will sometimes be formed in the animal's cheek through which the saliva 
is ejected when it is masticating its food. This disease may be compli- 
cated by diarrhea setting in, which has an exhausting effect on the 
animal, as is shown by its frequently lying down. This malady often ter- 
minates in death, and it runs its course in from seven to ten days. In 
treating this disease in cows, however, I have observed that complete 
recovery does not take place under three or four weeks. Its duration 
will vary according to the extent to which the animal is affected; 

Treatment. — Sulphate of quinine should be given to calves three 
times a day in doses varying from 5 to 10 grains, according to the size 
and age of the animal, and should be repeated about four times a day> 
Half-ounce doses of lime-water mixed with milk should be given if 
diarrhea is present. When the calf shows signs of debility, or diarrhea 
is present, whisky or brandy should be administered several times a 
day. The stimulant should be mixed with two or three parts of water, 
and should be repeated three or four times a day. In the case of cows, 
quinine should be given in dram doses. When the animal's appetite 
is poor or when it is weak, whisky or brandy should be given in half- 
pint doses two or three times a day, mixed with 2 parts of water. To 
cleanse the mouth and remove the fetor it should be syringed out sev- 
eral times a day with the following solution : Chlorinated soda, 4 ounces ; 
water, 2 pints. When the gangrenous parts have sloughed, then a 
lotion composed of sulphate of copper, 2 drams ; water, 2 pints, should 
be applied every day to the raw surfaces to promote healing. The diet 
should be nutritious, and for calves the cow's milk is to be preferred. The 
gangrenous tissue assumes a yellow, cheesy appearance, and the ani- 
mal's recovery will be hastened by removing dead tissue with the knife 
and not waiting until the process of ulceration separates it from the 
living parts. During the convalescent stage it is advisable to give 
carbonate of iron in combination with quinine. It may be given to 
calves in 10-grain doses, and to cows in 2-drani doses. In concluding 
we may mention that Longlen, of Arras, was the first veterinarian to 
publish an accurate and. clear account of this disease. 

INDUEATION OF THE TONGUE — ACTINOMYCOSIS. 

This disease commences with small x>atches of a yellow color, which 
may appear on the upper or under surface, on the tip, or on the sides 
of the tongue. The mucous membrane covering these patches is thick- 
ened, and it soon breaks up into a number of pimple-like excrescences 
which run together, and it then ulcerates and is cast off, leaving a red 
and excavated surface. These patches are found to cover a number of 
nodular bodies, most of which are as large as a hemp- seed, though 
some are as large as a cherry or a walnut. These nodules, when cut 
into, are seen to be composed of a yellow, cheesy-looking substance, 
which, when removed, leaves a sharply-defined cavity or ulcer. The 



24 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

nodules may be deep seated, so that they can not be discovered by 
examining the surface of the tongue, but in this situation, instead of 
producing ulceration and destruction of the mucous membrane, they 
set up inflammation in the muscular structure of the tongue, which 
terminates in a marked enlargement and wood like induration of that 
organ, which has led to this disease being commonly called "wooden 
tongue" in Germany. The enlarged and indurated condition of the 
tongue is a great impediment to the animal masticating its food, so 
that if the tongue is extensively affected the animal soon becomes 
emaciated. Similar nodules may form on the inner surface of the 
cheeks, of the lips, on the surface of the palate, and even in some 
instances on the mucous membrane lining the nose. 

Treatment. — When the nodules are large they may be dissected out 
or scraped out, so as to leave nothing but healthy tissue, and afterwards 
dressed with tincture of iodine. When this procedure is not practica- 
ble an incision should be made into the nodule, which should then be 
injected with tincture of iodine. This treatment destroys the micro. 
scopic fungus contained in the nodules, and will consequently prevent 
its spreading and bring about its ultimate separation from the healthy 
tissues. It is obvious that to treat this disease successfully its nature 
must be recognized at an early stage. After the muscular portion of 
the tongue has become enlarged and indurated it will not be possible 
to restore it to its healthy condition. 

[Quite recently actinomycosis of the tongue has been treated with 
great success in Europe by the administration of iodide of potassium. 
According to Nocard, this drug given once or twice a day, in doses of 
1J drams dissolved in a pint of water, acts as a specific and is followed 
by rapid improvement and the permanent cure of the affected animal. 
The results reported are so extraordinary that they justify the trial of 
this remedy in all cases of actinomycosis in the tongue or other organs. 
D. E. S.] 

DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX AND GULLET. 

PHARYNGITIS — SORE THROAT. 

This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the pharynx. 
It is frequently associated with laryngitis and bronchitis, and sometimes 
with pleurisy. 

Symptoms. — The muzzle is dry, the saliva dribbles from the corner of 
the mouth; the animal either does not swallow or swallows with diffi- 
culty; occasionally the liquids which it attempts to take come back in 
part through the nostrils, and the animal holds its neck in a stiff, 
straight position, moving it as little as possible. The eyelids are half 
closed, the white of the eye is bloodshot, and the animal occasionally 
grinds its teeth. When it attempts to eat hay or grass, after masticat- 
ing the food the animal drops it out of its mouth as if to avoid the 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 25 

pain of swallowing, and also evinces pain when pressure is applied on 
the pharynx: externally, and tries to prevent such pressure being* 
applied. 

Causes. — Pharyngitis is produced by a sudden cooling of the surface 
of the body, as when cattle are exposed to a cold wind or a cold rain. 

Treatment. — The throat should be syringed three times a day Avith 
an ounce of the following solution: Mtrate of silver, 1£ drams; dis- 
tilled water, 1 pint. Bland and soothing drinks, such as linseed tea, 
oatmeal and water, should occasionally be offered. Diet should consist 
of soft food, such as bran mashes with a little linseed meal mixed in 
them. The upper part of the throat and the space between the jaws 
should be well rubbed once a day with the following liniment : Liquor 
ammonia fortior, 4 ounces; oil of turpentine, 4 ounces; olive oil, 4 
ounces. Mix. Under the above treatment the inflammation of the 
throat will gradually subside and the animal will be able to swallow as 
usual in five or six days. We need hardly say that during its treat- 
ment the sick animal should be kept in a comfortable stable. 

PAROTITIS. 

Inflammation of the parotid gland may arise from the inflammation 
extending to it when an ox is affected with pharyngitis or laryngitis, 
or the inflammation may commence in the salivary ducts and may 
depend on some influence the nature of which is unknown. Parotitis 
sometimes arises from a blow or contusion which is severe enough to 
set up inflammation in the structure of the gland. 

Symptoms. — There is an elongated painful swelling, beginning at the 
base of the ear and passing downward along the posterior margin of 
the lower jaw. The swelling is sometimes limited to one side, and when 
both sides are swollen it is generally larger on one side than on the 
other. The secretion of saliva is increased, the appetite is poor, the 
neck is stiff so that it is painful to raise the head, and food is swallowed 
with difficulty. 'In many cases the swelling of those glands, when sub- 
mitted to proper treatment, disappears in a comparatively short time. 
In other cases, however, the gland remains enlarged, even after the ani- 
mal recovers its appetite. 

Treatment. — A warm bran poultice should be applied on the swollen 
gland, and whenever the poultice has cooled it should be replaced by a 
new one. This treatment should be continued until an abscess forms, 
which may be ascertained by examining the surface of the gland with 
the fingers, and when on pressing any part of the surface it is found to 
fluctuate or "give," then we may conclude that an abscess has formed. 
It is well not to open the abscess until the fluctuation is well marked, 
as at this this stage the pus or matter is near the surface and there is 
less trouble in healing the wound than if the pus is deep seated. The 
poulticing should be continued for two or three days after the abscess 
has been opened. By that time the discharge of pus has ceased or 



26 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

become very slight, and the poulticing may be discontinued. The 
wound should be sponged with tepid water once a day and a little of 
the following lotion afterwards applied: Carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 
8 ounces. In some cases, after poulticing for four or five days, there 
will be no indication of softening at any point, and that treatment may 
therefore be discontinued, and then the swollen gland should be gently 
rubbed once a day with camphorated oil. If this fails to promote 
absorption or bring about a gradual dispersion of the swelling, then to 
attain this object the swelling may be painted with tincture of iodine 
twice a day or rubbed once a day with compound iodine ointment. 
When the swollen gland is not being poulticed it should be covered with 
a piece of flannel. The diet of the animal should consist of soft food 
while it is under treatment. 

PHARYNGEAL POLYPI. 

Tumors form not infrequently in the pharynx, and when they increase 
in size may give rise to a train of symptoms varying according to the 
situation which they occupy in that part. The tumor may be so situ- 
ated that by shifting its position a little it may partially obstruct the 
posterior nares (nostrils), when, of course, it will render nasal breath- 
ing very noisy and labored. In another situation its partial displace- 
ment may impede the entrance of air into the larynx. In almost any 
part of the pharynx, but especially near the entrance of the gullet, they 
will interfere with the act of swallowing, and this fact is so generally 
recognized in some parts of Germany that whenever an animal begins 
to lose condition it is said to have a " growth " in its throat. As these 
tumors are frequently attached to the wall of the pharynx by a pedicel 
or stalk, it will be seen that they may readily be displaced in different 
directions so as to produce the symptoms before described. 

Treatment. — The method of treatment followed in such cases is to 
separate the animal's jaws with an instrument termed a gag, and then 
after drawing the tongue partially forward to pass the hand into the 
pharynx and to wrench or twist the tumor from its attachment. One 
veterinarian who has had considerable practice in treating this form of 
disease scrapes through the attachment of the tumor gradually with 
his thumb nail. In cases where the attachment is too strong to be sev- 
ered in this way an instrument like a thimble, but possessing a sharp 
edge at the end, might be used to effect the same purpose. As it is 
impossible to use a knife in the pharynx the suggestion here made 
might in the future be carried out with advantage. 

CHOKING. 

This accident usually happens from attempting to swallow too large 
an object, such as a turnip, potato, beet, or an apple or pear, though in 
rare cases choking may occur from bran, chaff, or some other finely 



DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 27 

divided food lodging - in and filling up a portion of the gullet* This 
latter form of the accident is most likely to occur in animals which are 
greedy feeders, 

Symptoms.— The symptoms will vary somewhat according to the part 
of the gullet or throat in which the obstruction is located. In most 
cases there is a discharge of saliva from the mouth; the animal coughs 
frequently, and when it drinks the water is soon ejected. These symp- 
toms, however, are not always present, as I have seen a case in which 
a potato was lodged in the upper part of the gullet, but where there 
was a small space between the wall of the gullet and the obstruction, 
so that water given by the mouth passed into the stomach, and in this 
case there was neither coughing nor any other symptom of distress. 
The potato was so large, however, that there was not space enough to 
pass the tip of the finger behind it so as to slide it into the pharynx, 
though repeated efforts were made to withdraw it in this way while it 
was simultaneously pushed from the outside in an upward direction. 
After the lapse of several hours it passed into the stomach of itsel f. 

Treatment. — It is always advisable to put a gag in the animal's mouth, 
and while the head is held in a horizontal direction by two assistants 
to pass the hand into the pharynx, and when any foreign body is found 
in the pharynx to withdraw it gradually and steadily. When the sub- 
stance is lodged in the upper part of the gullet pressure should be 
made by an assistant in an upward direction while the operator passes 
his hand into the pharynx, and if the assistant can not by pressure dis- 
lodge the substance from the gullet the operator may by passing his 
middle finger above and partly behind the substance gradually slide 
the object into the pharynx and then withdraw it by the mouth. It is 
usually stated that irregular shaped objects are more difficult to manip- 
ulate. This statement, however, is of doubtful accuracy, as a root with 
a smooth surface, which nearly fits the upper part of the gullet, will be 
found extremely difficult to move from its position. The presence of 
an obstructing substance in the cervical portion of the gullet may be 
ascertained by passing the hand along the left side of the neck, when 
a hard and painless swelling will be found to indicate the presence of the 
foreign body. In such cases we must endeavor by gentle and persever- 
ing pressure with the thumb and two next fingers to slide the obstruct- 
ing substance gradually upward to the pharynx. To facilitate this it is 
well to give the animal a wineglassful of olive oil before the manipula- 
tions described are commenced. When the substance has been brought 
into or nearly into the pharynx, then the mouth gag should be used, 
the tongue drawn partially forward with the left hand, and the right 
should be passed forward into the pharynx, so as to withdraw the 
obstruction. When bran or chaff causes the trouble it is best to give a 
small quantity of oil to lubricate the walls of the gullet and then by 
gentle and persevering pre'ssure to endeavor to separate and divide the 
mass and then to work it downward toward the stomach. This will be 



28 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

assisted by pouring small quantities of oil and water down the animal's 
throat. It is not advisable to use the probang to push down any soft 
material such as oats or chaff, as this generally condenses and renders 
firmer the obstructing substance by pressing its particles or elements 
together, so that it forms a solid, resisting mass which can not be moved. 
In some cases the foreign body can not be dislodged from tlie neck 
by pressing and manipulating that part externally. In sucli an event 
we must resort to the use of the probang, or if the foreign body is 
lodged in that part of the gullet which passes through the thorax or 
chest, there is no way of removing an obstruction so situated except 
by using the probang. (Plate in, Figs. 2, 3.) The instrument usually 
employed for this purpose is called the probang of Munro, after its 
inventor. Before passing the probang a gag is introduced into the 
animal's mouth, and the gag should have an aperture at each end from 
which a strap passes and is buckled at the back of the head below the 
horns. (Plate in, Fig. 4.) The probang should then be oiled, and the 
head and neck being held in a straight line by two assistants, the tongue 
must be partly drawn out of the mouth, the probang cautiously passed 
along the roof of the mouth into the pharynx and thence into the gullet, 
through which it is passed down. If resistance is met, gentle and 
continuous pressure must be employed, under the influence of which 
the agent will generally in a short time pass into the stomach. A pro- 
bang is a flexible instrument, and adapts itself to the natural curva- 
ture of the gullet, so that if it is used cautiously there is not much risk 
of injury. 

Some writers have advised that when the obstruction is lodged in 
the cervical (neck) portion of the gullet it should be struck with a mal- 
let, so as to crush it and thus alter its shape so that it may easily slip 
down into the stomach. If the obstructing substance is hard, this will 
be a dangerous operation, but if soft, as in case of a ripe pear for exam : 
pie, this proceeding might be safely adopted. 

In all cases where pressure applied on the neck fails to move the 
obstruction and the probang also fails to move it, the gullet must 
be opened and the obstructing substance removed through the wound. 
In such cases the assistance of a veterinarian or a surgeon must be 
obtained. 

WOUNDS AND INJURIES OF THE GULLET. 

Sometimes from the rash and too forcible use of the probang the walls 
of the gullet may be more or less lacerated or abraded, and the animal 
consequently swallows with pain and difficulty. In such cases dry feed 
must be withheld for five or six days, so as to allow the injured parts 
to heal, and the diet must be limited to linseed tea, hay tea, and thin 
oatmeal gruel. The same kind of diet must be fed after the operation 
of cutting into the gullet has been performed. 

Sometimes the gullet is ruptured and lacerated to such an extent 
that treatment of any kind is hopeless. I have known this to occur 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 29 

when the handle of a pitchfork has been pushed down a cow's throat to 
remove an obstruction. Where such treatment has been applied it is 
best to slaughter the animal without delay, as the flesh may be utilized, 
and remedial treatment would be hopeless. In this connection it may 
be mentioned that whatever substitute may be used for a probang, 
which sometimes is not at hand, it should be flexible and should possess 
a smooth surface. The handle of a whip, when it is flexible, may be 
used in emergencies. 

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 
TYMPANITES, HOVEN, OR BLOATING. 

This disease is characterized by swelling of the left flank, and is 
caused by the formation of gas in the rumen or paunch. (See Plates i 
and II.) 

Causes. — Tympanites may be caused by any kind of food which pro- 
duces indigestion. When cattle are first turned into young clover they 
eat so greedily of it that tympanites frequently results ; turnips, pota- 
toes, and cabbage may also cause it; middlings andcornmeal also fre- 
quently give rise to it. In this connection it may be stated that an 
excessive quantity of any of the before-mentioned foods may bring on 
this disorder, or it may not be due to excess but to eating too hastily. 
Sometimes the quality of the food is at fault. Grass or clover when 
wet by dew or rain frequently disorders digestion and brings on tym- 
panites ; frozen roots or pastures covered with hoar-frost should also be 
regarded as dangerous. When food has been eaten too hastily, or 
when it is cold and wet, the digestive process is imperfectly performed 
and the food contained in the paunch ferments, during which process 
large quantities of gas are formed. The same result may follow when 
a cow is choked, as the obstruction in the gullet prevents the eructation 
or passing up. of gas from the stomach, so that the gas continues to 
accumulate until tympanitis results. 

Symptoms. — The swelling of the left flank is very characteristic, as in 
well-marked cases the flank at its upper part rises above the level of 
the backbone and when struck with the tips of the fingers emits a 
drumlike sound. The animal has an anxious expression, moves uneasily, 
and is evidently distressed. If relief is not obtained in time it breathes 
with difficulty, reels in walking or in standing, and in a short time falls 
down and dies from suffocation. The distention of the stomach may 
become so great as to prevent the animal from breathing, and in some 
instances the case may be complicated by rupture of the stomach. 

Treatment. — In urgent cases the trocar should be used immediately, 
for when the distension of the stomach has become extreme there is no 
trying the remedial effect of medicine. The trocar is a sharp-pointed 
instrument encased in a sheath, which leaves the sharp point of the 
trocar free. (See Plate ill. Figs, ba and 56.) In selecting the point 



30 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

for using the trocar, a spot equally distant from the last rib, the hip 
bone and the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra; must be 
chosen. Here an incision about three-quarters of an inch long should 
be made through the skin, and then the sharp point of the trocar 
being directed downward, inward and slightly forward, is thrust into 
the paunch. (Plate I.) The sheath of the trocar should be left in the 
paunch as long as any gas continues to issue from it. If the canula 
or sheath of the trocar is removed while gas is still forming in the 
paunch and the left flank becomes considerably swollen it may be 
necessary to insert it again. It is well accordingly to observe the can- 
ula closely and if gas is found to be issuing from it, it should not be 
removed. In order to be certain on this point I have been in the habit 
of placing the palm of my hand about 2 inches above the mouth of the 
canula, when if gas is issuing the sensation produced by the current of 
gas coming against the skin will enable one to form an accurate opinion. 
When gas issues from the canula in considerable quantity the sound 
accompanying its escape renders the exact condition obvious. It is 
occasionally necessary to keep the canula in the stomach for several 
hours. When this is necessary a piece of stout cord should be passed 
round the neck of the canula immediately below the projecting rim, 
and then be passed round the animal's body and tied in a secure knot. 
The rim surrounding the mouth of the canula should be in contact 
with the skin. When the canula is secured as described it may remain 
in the stomach over night. I have even found it necessary to keep it 
in that position for two days. But whenever the person in charge of 
the cow is satisfied that gas has ceased to issue from the canula it should 
be removed. 

The canula is only to be employed in extreme or urgent cases, though 
everyone who has had experience in treating indigestion in cattle will 
realize that he has saved the lives of many animals by its prompt appli- 
cation. When the tympanic animal is not distressed, and the swelling 
of the flank is not great, it is best to resort to the administration of 
internal medicine. Two ounces of aromatic spirits of ammonia should 
be given every half hour in a quart of cold water, or half an ounce of 
chloride of lime may be dissolved in a pint of tepid water, and the dose 
repeated every half hour until the bloating has subsided. It is gener- 
ally necessary to give a dose of purgative medicine after bloating has 
subsided, as animals frequently show symptoms of constipation after 
attacks of indigestion. When the bloating is not too great gentle walk- 
ing exercise will facilitate the removal of the gas. 

CHRONIC TYMPA.NITES. 

Cattle, especially those which have been kept in the stable all winter, 
are liable to suffer from chronic tympanites. In this form the animal 
bloats up after feeding, but seldom swells so much as to cause any 
alarm. The chronic form of indigestion may also follow an acute attack 
like that previously described. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 31 

Treatment should be preceded by a moderate dose of purgative medi- 
cine: one pound of sulphate of magnesia, half an ounce of powdered 
Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce of powdered ginger, 1 pint of molasses. The 
powder should be stirred up for a few minutes with two quarts of luke- 
warm water, then the molasses should be added, and after all the 
ingredients have been stirred together for about ten minutes, the dose 
should be administered. It will generally be necessary after the opera- 
tion of the purgative to give some tonic and antacid preparation to pro- 
mote digestion, which is imperfectly performed in such cases. We 
recommend the following for this purpose : Powdered gentian, 3 ounces ; 
powdered bicarbonate of potash, 3 ounces; powdered ginger, 3 ounces; 
powdered capsicum, 1 ounce. Mix and divide into twelve powders, one 
of which should be given three times a day before feeding, shaken up 
with half a pint of whisky and a pint of water. It is also advantageous 
in such cases to give two heaped teaspoonfuls of wood charcoal, mixed 
with the animal's feed three times a day. The animal should also go 
out during the day, as want of exercise favors the continuance of this 
form of indigestion. 

Cases occasionally occur which resist medical treatment. Chronic 
indigestion has sometimes been found to arise from enlarged lymphatic 
glands pressing on the gullet and preventing the eructation or belch- 
ing up of gas Avhich occurs during digestion. Cruzel expresses the 
opinion that this form of tympanitis occurs in animals affected with 
tuberculosis, and remarks that the swelling of the flank disappears 
when the animal stands, but reappears when it lies down. 

DISTENSION OF RUMEN OR PAUNCH WITH FOOD. 

This form of indigestion is caused by the animal gorging itself with 
food, and arises more from the animal's voracious appetite than from 
any defect in the quality of the food supplied to it. In cases of this 
kind there is comparatively no great formation of gas, and the gas 
which is formed is diffused through the stomach instead of accumu- 
lating in a layer in its upper part. On pressing the flank with the 
closed fist the indent of the hand remains for a short time in the 
flank, as if the rumen were filled with a soft doughy mass. This form 
of indigestion should be treated by stimulants, such as have been 
described in speaking of the two preceding diseases. But if the treat- 
ment applied fails and the impacted or overloaded condition of the 
rumen continues, an incision should be made with a sharp, long-bladed 
knife in the left flank, commencing at the point where it is usual to 
puncture an ox, and prolonging the incision in a downward direction 
until it is long enough to admit the hand. When the point of the knife 
is thrust into the flank and the blade of the knife cuts downward, the 
wall of the stomach, the muscle and the skin should all be cut through 
at the same time. Two assistants should hold the edges of the wound 
together so as to prevent any food slipping between the flank and the 



32 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

wall of the stomach, and then the operator should remove two-thirds of 
the contents of the rumen. This having been done the edges of the 
wound should be sponged with a little carbolized warm water, and the 
lips of the wound in the rumen being turned inward they should be 
brought together with catgut stitches. The wound penetrating the 
muscle and the skin may then be brought together by silk stitches! 
which should pass through the entire thickness of the muscle and 
should be about 1 inch apart. The wound should afterwards be dressed 
once a day with lotion and the animal covered with a tight linen sheet 
to protect the wound from insects and dirt. The lotion to be used in 
such a case is made up as follows: Sulphate of zinc, 1 dram; carbolic 
acid, 2 drams; glycerin, 2 ounces; water, 14 ounces; mix. 

LOSS OF CUD. 

It is very common among farmers, when a cow or ox is ailing, to sa.y 
that the sick animal has lost its cud. If it is meant that the animal, 
does not ruminate or chew the cud, and that it consequently must be 
sick, no fault can be found with the expression. In most cases, how- 
ever, the remark is not intended to convey the idea that the animal 
does not ruminate, but that the loss of cud is a disease in itself. We 
may here observe that loss of cud is a symptom of suspended rumina- 
tion (Plate it) and shows that the animal's digestive functions are not 
performed as regularly as usual. It is a symptom of a great many 
diseases, and when its existence is detected it should lead the observer 
to try and discover other symptoms, so that on those he may base a 
correct opinion as to the nature of the disease from which the animal 
suffers. 

VOMITING. 

This is not to be confounded with rumination, though some writers 
have advanced the opinion that vomiting is merely a disordered and 
irregular rumination. It is not of common occurrence in cattle, though 
as it sometimes occurs it is well that a description of it should be 
given. 

Symptoms. — Animals which vomit are frequently in poor condition. 
After having eaten tranquilly for some time the animal suddenly 
becomes uneasy, arches the back, stretches the neck and head and 
then suddenly ejects 10 or 12 pounds of the contents of the rumen. 
After having done this, uneasiness subsides and in a short time the 
animal resumes eating as if nothing had happened. 

Causes. — The causes of this disordered state of the digestive system 
in cattle are rather obscure. It is evident that the vomited matter pro- 
ceeds from the rumen, and it appears to show some temporary nervous 
disorder of that part. It has been found to occur when there was can- 
cerous disease of the fourth stomach, and experimentally it< has bean. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OEGANS. 33 

shown that a suspension of digestion or great derangement of the fourth 
stomach produces considerable nervous disorder of the rumen and some- 
times vomiting or attempt to vomit. 

Treatment. — Easily digested food and plenty of water should be given. 
Fear and excitement, chasing or hurrying animals after eating heartily, 
are apt to bring on this result. In order to remove the conditions which 
produce vomiting the following draft should be given: Hydrate of 
chloral, half an ounce; whisky, 8 ounces; water, 1 ifint. The dose to 
be repeated when the condition of the animal seems to require it. 

DEPRAVED APPETITE — PICA. 

Cattle suffering from this disease have a capricious and variable appe 
tite as regards their ordinary food, but evince a strong desire to lick and 
eat substances for which healthy cattle show no inclination. Alkaline 
and saline tasting substances are especially attractive to cattle having 
a depraved appetite, and they frequently lick lime, earth, coal, gravel, 
and even the dung of other cattle. Cows in calf and young cattle are 
especially liable to develop those symptoms. Animals affected in this 
way lose condition, their coat is staring, gait slow, and small vesicles 
containing yellow liquid form under the tongue; the milk given by cows 
is thin and watery. Such animals become restless and uneasy, as is 
indicated by frequent bellowing. The disease may last for months, the 
animal ultimately dying, worn out by fever. Depraved appetite fre- 
quently precedes the condition in which the bones of cattle become brit- 
tle and fracture easily, and which is known by the name of osteomalacia. 

Causes. — Bad food, especially food which has undergone changes 
which lessen its digestibility and impair its nutritive value, is the com- 
mon cause. It has been stated that the food of which animals partake 
previous to becoming affected with this disease must be deficient in 
some of the constituents required to supply the wear and growth of 
the body, and especially that there is a deficiency of lime salts. Cattle 
pastured on low, swampy land become predisposed to it. It occasion- 
ally happens, however, that one individual in a herd suffers though all 
are fed alike; in such cases the disease must arise from the affected 
animal not assimilating properly the nutritive elements of the food 
which is supplied to it. 

Treatment. — The aim in such cases must be to improve the process 
of digestion and to supply the animal with a sufficiency of sound and 
wholesome food. The following should be given to the cow three times 
a day, a heaped tablespoonful constituting a dose: Carbonate of iron, 
4 ounces; powdered gentian, 4 ounces; common salt, 4 ounces; pow- 
dered fenugreek, 4 ounces; mix. In addition to this three table- 
spoonfuls of powdered charcoal should be mixed with the animal's 
food at least three times a day, and a piece of rock salt should be 
placed where the animal can lick it at will. 
24697 3 



34 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

HAIR CONCRETIONS. 

These concretions or hair-balls are produced by animals licking 
themselves, or by their licking other animals. As a result of this habit 
the hairs which are swallowed are carried round by the contractions of 
the stomach and gradually assume the form of a small pellet or ball. 
These increase in size as fresh quantities of hair are introduced into the 
stomach, which become adherent to the surface of the hair-ball. These 
hair-balls are found most frequently in the reticulum or second stom- 
ach (Plate II), though sometimes in the rumen. In calves hair-balls 
are generally found in the fourth stomach. There are no certain symp- 
toms by which we can determine the presence of hair- balls in the 
stomach, and therefore no treatment can be recommended for such 
cases. In making post-mortem examinations of cattle we have some- 
times found the walls of the reticulum transfixed with nails or pieces 
of wire, and yet the animal during life had not shown any symptoms 
of indigestion, but had died from maladies not involving the second 
stomach. 

INDIGESTION OF THE THIRD STOMACH — GRASS STAGGERS — DRY MUR- 
RAIN — WOOD-EVIL. 

The various names which have been applied to this disease indicate 
that those who have written concerning it are by no means agreed as 
to its nature and cause. Among systematic writers, however, there 
seems to be a general agreement that the seat of the disease is in the 
third stomach, as they have followed one another faithfully in describ- 
ing that part as the sole seat of trouble. We think it more correct to 
regard this as a general disorder of the digestive organs, and that the 
third stomach merely participates in the disordered functions of the 
other stomachs. 

Causes. — Want of exercise predisposes to this disease, or food which 
is coarse and indigestible may after a time produce this condition. 
Food which possesses astringent properties and tends to check secre- 
tion may also act as an exciting cause. Food in excessive quantity 
may also lead to disorder of digestion and to this disease. It is very 
likely to appear towards the end of protracted seasons of drought, 
therefore a deficiency of water must be regarded as one of the condi- 
tions which favor its development. However, we think it best to state 
that the causation of this disease is not at present completely under- 
stood, and that cases may sometimes occur in which the explanations 
offered as to their cause are mere conjecture. 

Symptoms. — Diminished appetite, rumination irregular, tongue coated, 
mouth slimy, dung passed apparently not well digested and smelling 
badly, dullness and fullness of the flanks. It is also frequently stated 
that on pressing the fist below the short ribs on the right side the 
third stomach will be found as a hard sort of mass in that situation. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 35 

The disease may in some cases assume a chronic character, and in 
addition to the foregoing symptoms slight bloating or tympanitis of the 
left flank may be observed; the animal breathes with effort and each 
respiration may be accompanied by a grunt, the ears and horns are 
alternately hot and cold, rumination ceases, the usual rumbling sound 
in the stomach is not audible, the passage of dung is almost entirely 
suspended, and the animal passes only a little mucus occasionally. 
The patient falls away in flesh and becomes weaker, as is shown by 
one frequently finding it lying down. When the animal falls into this 
weak and exhausted condition the disease frequently terminates fatally. 

On examining animals which have died of this disease a dry and 
somewhat hardened condition of the contents of the third stomach is 
found. In other cases the stomachs and their contents present a natural 
appearance, and we may remark in this connection that in the latter 
class of cases the causation of the disease has yet to be explained. 

In some cases the brain becomes disordered, no doubt from the de- 
ranged condition of the stomach reaching the brain through what is 
termed reflex action. There is weakness and an unsteady gait, the 
animal does not appear to take notice of and will consequently run 
against obstacles; after a time it falls down and gives up to violent 
and disordered movements. This delirious condition is succeeded by 
coma or stupor, and death ensues. 

Treatment. — Aromatic and demulcent draughts should be given to 
produce a soothing effect on the mucous lining of the stomachs and to 
promote digestion. Two ounces of chamomile flowers should be boiled 
for twenty minutes in a quart of water and the infusion on cooling 
should be given to the affected animal. This should be repeated about 
three times a day. When constipation i s present the following purga- 
tive may be administered : Sulphate of magnesia, 1 pound; Barbadoes 
aloes, half an ounce; powdered ginger, 1 ounce; powdered mix vomica, 
1 dram ; fluid extract of belladonna, half an ounce. The different pow- 
ders contained in this prescription should be stirred up in 2 quarts of 
lukewarm water, then the fluid extract of belladonna added and the 
dose administered. After this purgative has acted, if there is a lack of 
appetite and the animal does not ruminate regularly, the powder men- 
tioned in remarks on the treatment of chronic tympanitis should be 
given according to directions. The diet must be rather laxative and of 
a digestible character after an attack of this form of indigestion. Food 
should be given in moderate quantities, as any excess by overtasking 
the digestive functions may bring on a relapse. 

INDIGESTION FROM DRINKING COLD WATER — COLIC. 

This disorder is produced by drinking copiously of cold water, which 
arrests digestion and produces cramp of the fourth stomach, probably 
of the other stomachs, and also of the bowels. Cruzel states that it is 
frequently observed in working oxen during hot weather. 



36 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Causes. — It is not customary for the ox to drink much water at oncp. 
In fact he usually drinks slowly, and as if he were merely tasting the 
water, letting some fall out at the corners of his mouth at every mouth- 
ful. He drinks much less in proportion to his size than the horse, and 
when fed on green food or at pasture he may pass several days without 
drinking. It would, therefore, seem to be contrary to the habits of the 
ox to drink largely. But we find that during hot weather, when he has 
been working and is consequently very thirsty, if he drinks a large 
quantity of cold water he is immediately taken with a very severe colic. 
Though Cruzel, a French writer on the diseases of the ox, is of opinion 
that these are the only conditions under which this form of colic arises, 
I have knoAvn it to affect milch cows quite severely in winter, when they 
are let out of a warm stable to be watered. Cows which are fed largely 
on dry hay drink copiously, like the working ox, and become affected 
in precisely the same manner. But the secretion of milk in the cow is 
usually much diminished after such attacks. In such cases I have also 
observed that they are seized with a chill or fit of trembling before the 
cramps come on. 

Symptoms. — There is some distension of the abdomen, but no accumu- 
lation of gas. As the distension and pain occur immediately after the 
animal has drunk the water there can not be any doubt as to the excit- 
ing cause. Cruzel, in speaking of the treatment of this disease, says it 
is customary among French farmers to walk or even trot the ox up and 
down, and that as a result of this treatment the water passes from the 
fourth vstomach into the bowel, from which it is soon passed off not much 
changed, except that it is slightly colored by the substances with which 
it has come in contact in passing through the bowel. Diarrhea then 
appears to be a favorable termination of this affection. 

Treatment. — The treatment above described should be adopted in a 
modified form. It is obviously dangerous to trot an animal whose 
stomach and bowels are largely distended with water, but it appears 
rational to walk the animal about for ten minutes before administering 
medicine, as this allows time for a portion of the conteuts of the stom- 
ach to pass into the bowel, and renders it safer to give medicine. In 
many cases the walking exercise and the diarrhea bring about a spon- 
taneous cure of this disorder, but as in some instances the cramps and 
pains of the stomachs persist, I have been accustomed to give 1 
ounce of sulphuric ether and 1 ounce of tincture of opium, shaken up 
with a pint of warm water, and to repeat the dose in half an hour if the 
animal is not relieved. In an emergency when medicine is not to be 
had, half a pint of whisky may be substituted for medicine, and should 
be given mixed with a pint of warm water ; or a tablespoonful of pow- 
dered ginger may be administered in the same way as the remedies 
already mentioned. I have never seen a case of this kind terminate 
fatally, but Cruzel mentions that he has witnessed two fatal cases. In 
both the fourth stomach was congested, and in one case there was. a 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 37 

rupture of a part of the small intestine. In both of those cases the ani- 
mals were compelled to trot forward and back, and it seems reasonable 
to infer that this treatment was the cause of their death. 

INDIGESTION IN CALVES — GASTRIC CATARRH — DIARRHEA — WHITE 

SCOUR. 

Sucking calves are subject to a form of diarrhea to which the above 
designations have been applied. 

Causes. — Calves which suck their dams are not frequently affected 
with this disease, though it may be occasioned by their sucking at long- 
intervals and thus overloading the stomach and bringing on indigestion. 
Calves which are separated from their dams and which receive consid- 
erable quantities of cold milk at long intervals are liable to contract 
this form of indigestion. Calves fed on artificial food, which is some- 
times used as a substitute for milk, also frequently contract it. 

Symptoms. — The milk which passes into the fourth stomach becomes 
curdled and acts as an irritant on the surface of the stomach and bow- 
els, so that a catarrhal condition of their mucous surface is set up. The 
passages have a thin, yellowish-white appearance and become very fre- 
quent. The calf becomes dull, whisks its tail as if in pain whenever 
there is a passage from the bowels, loses its appetite, becomes weak, 
and unless the disease is checked dies in a few days from exhaustion. 

Treatment, — The calf should have from 1 to 2 ounces of castor oil 
and a tablespoonful of laudanum. A mild dose of purgative medi- 
cine is given to remove the curdled milk from the stomach and bowels. 
The object of the subsequent treatment is to allay the irritation of the 
stomach and bowels and to restore the digestive functions. We rec- 
ommend the following to be compounded and divided into twelve pow- 
ders: Powdered rhubarb, 1£ ounces; carbonate of magnesia, 3 ounces. 
One of these powders should be given four times a day; each powder 
to be shaken up with two wineglassfuls of new milk, to which two tea- 
spoonfuls of whisky should be added. A little fresh milk should be 
given five or six times a day, or the calf allowed to suck about six times 
a day, but the quantity should be limited. In applying treatment the 
mother should always be examined as to the condition of her health, 
diet, etc., as the disorder may sometimes be traced to some disease or 
mismanagement affecting the mother. 

GASTROENTERITIS. 

This consists of an inflammation of the mucous surface of the fourth 
stomach and of the bowel. The inflammation is seldom limited to the 
mucous surface of the fourth stomach, but almost always involves the 
mucous surface of the bowel to a greater or less extent. 

Causes. — Long intervals between times of feeding; sudden checking 
of perspiration; putting working oxen to severe work immediately 



38 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

after feeding, so that they do not have time to ruminate; sudden 
changes of diet. In enumerating the causes of this disease we think it 
avcII at the same time to indicate how the operation of those causes may 
be prevented. In working oxen, for example, they may be allowed to 
rest after feeding so that rumination is not interfered with. Grass 
which has lain so long after cutting that it is wilted, musty hay, and 
any kind of forage which contains a large amount of hard, fibrous 
material, so that it resists the macerating and solvent action of the 
stomachs may set up inflammation of the digestive mucous membrane. 
Exposure of the body to the action of damp and cold winds is also dan- 
gerous. 

Symptoms. — Dullness; drooping of the ears; dryness of the muzzle; 
dry skin ; staring coat ; loins morbidly sensitive to pressure ; fullness of 
the left flank, which is owing to the distension of the fourth stomach 
by gas. The pulse is small, the gait is feeble and staggering, each 
step the animal makes is accompanied by a grunt, and this symptom is 
especially marked if the animal happens to walk in a downward direc- 
tion; there is loss of appetite, and rumination is suspended. On the 
second day of sickness the passages are few in number, hard, and are 
sometimes coated with mucus. If treatment does not bring relief the 
symptoms become aggravated, the pulse weaker, complications may set 
iii, such as inflammation of the lungs, or there may be symptoms of 
brain disorder. The bowels may act very irregularly, sometimes being 
constipated, and at other times the passages are soft, tarry looking, and 
streaked with blood. The passages at the last stage of the disease 
exhale a putrid odor which may even occasion sickness in other ani- 
mals, and this suggests the idea that in treating this disease it is 
advisable to keep sick animals apart from healthy ones. When the sick 
animal assumes a recumbent position there is a continual grunt or 
moan which appears to accompany each expiration; the animal usually 
dies in convulsions, and in some cases at this time a bloody liquid issues 
from the mouth and anus. 

Post-mortem appearances. — The contents of the rumen are dry, those 
of the manyplies or third stomach have a similar appearance and are 
also dark in color, and on removing some portions of the mucous mem- 
brane of the third stomach the subjacent tissue is reddened. The 
mucous membrane of the fourth stomach has a well-marked red color 
and sometimes presents ulcerations. The inflammation generally ex- 
tends to the mucous surface of the small intestine, which shows large 
brownish spots on its surface and also ulcerated surfaces. 

Treatment. — Owing to the fact that this malady frequently is caused 
by some imperfectly digested food setting up inflammation of the mu- 
cous surface of the stomach and bowels, it is advisable when disease is 
supposed to originate from such cause to give a pint of castor oil, and 
then to give three or four times a day a quart of linseed tea in which 
an ounce of carbonate of magnesia has been dissolved, and along with 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 39 

each dose ten drops of tincture of aconite should be combined. The 
food should be soft and easily digested, such as small quantities of 
bran mash and oatmeal gruel. It is also advisable as early as the 
second day of the animal's sickness to give small quantities of hay or 
grass, so as to encourage the animal to ruminate, which it will not do if 
kept entirely on very soft and liquid food. Care must be exercised not 
to give too much of such food as grass and hay, but to gradually in- 
crease the proportion of such diet as the animal's digestive organs seem 
to be returning to their natural function. Purgative medicine must be 
administered only when absolutely necessary, as a restoration of the 
digestive organs to their natural functions is desired, rather than to 
produce purgation. 

DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 
DIARRHEA. 

Diarrhea results either from increased action of the muscular coat of 
the intestines, an unusually liquid state of their contents, or, generally, 
from both of those conditions combined. 

Causes. — The exciting causes of diarrhea may be thus arranged : Irri- 
tation of the intestines by food taken in excess, or of improper quality, 
and this especially applies to soft, watery, green food; excessive secre- 
tions, especially bile; impure water and water drunk in excess; mechan- 
ical congestion of the intestinal vessels ; acute or chronic inflammation 
of the bowels. It may be a symptom of other diseases which depend 
on the presence of an animal poison in the blood, as may be observed 
in Texas fever and contagious pleuropneumonia. Causes of a more 
general character, viz., exposure to changes of temperature, either 
excessive cold or heat may produce it. 

Symptoms. — The animal is dull, places its feet well under the body, 
arches its back, and shows thirst. Passages from the bowels are fre- 
quent, at first consisting of thin dung, but as the disease continues they 
become watery and offensive smelling, and may even be streaked with 
blood. Frequently this malady is accompanied by fever, great depres- 
sion, loss of strength, rapid loss of flesh, and it may terminate in death. 

Treatment. — When the disease depends on irritating properties of the 
food which has been supplied to the animal it is advisable to give a mild 
purgative, such as a pint of castor or linseed oil. When the secretions 
of the bowels are irritating an ounce of carbonate of magnesia and half 
an ounce of tincture of opium should be shaken up in a quart of lin- 
seed tea and given to the animal three times a day until the passages 
present a natural appearance. When there is debility, want of appetite, 
no fever, but a continuance of the watery discharges from the bowels, 
then an astringent may be given. For such cases we have found the 
following serviceable: Powdered galls, 6 ounces; powdered gentian, 2 
ounces. Mix and divide into twelve powders. One powder to be given 



40 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

three times a day until the passages present a natural appearance. 
Each powder .should be mixed with a half pint of whisky and a pint 
of water. When diarrhea is a symptom of a malady characterized by 
the presence of a blood poison, the treatment appropriate to such dis- 
ease must be applied. 

DYSENTERY, 

Dysentery begins with inflammation of the mucous membrane of the 
coIod, though the disease may extend to the caecum and sometimes to 
the rectum. It is also popularly known in this country by the names 
of bloody flux and red murrain. 

Causes. — Feeding cattle on hay which has been made during a wet 
season, musty oats, or any forage which is largely infested with para- 
sitic growths. Hay-o^r coarse grass containing a large proportion of 
woody fiber, pastures v Ich have been inundated, and the vegetation 
growing on low, marshy localities may set up irritation of the mucous 
membrane which terminates in dysentery. Water containing a large 
proportion of organic matter may also occasion this disease. The pas- 
sages or excreta of animals suffering from the disease are to be regarded 
as containing an infective element, and should be disinfected, burned 
or buried. 

Symptoms. — The animal eats slowly, ruminates less frequently than 
when in good health, and walks slowly. Sometimes there are indica- 
tions of colicky pains. As the disease advances the animal ceases to 
^at and ruminate, the muzzle is dry, the eyes sunken, the coat rough, 
the skin dry and adherent or hidebound. The bowels act irregularly, 
and the passages are thin, black colored or grayish; the rmssages then 
become frequent, fetid, and are streaked with blood. This disease does 
not run a rapid course, and when it proves fatal the mucous membrane 
of the bowels will be found thickened and reddened at some parts, 
showing ulceration at some other points, and on some portions of its 
surface covered with a layer of mucus. 

Treatment. — When symptoms of dysentery are first observed, a pound 
of sulphate of magnesia should be mixed with 4 quarts of tepid water, 
and then 2 drams of sulphuric acid should be gradually added to this 
mixture. This should be given at one dose, and it is important that it 
should be administered at an early stage of the disease, as it not only 
serves to remove irritating materials from the bowels, but it has an 
astringent and sedative effect on the mucous surfaces and lessens the 
congestion. The food should be soft and easy of digestion, and may 
consist of grass, boiled or pulped roots, and nutritive drinks, such as 
linseed tea, hay tea, etc. When the purgative before mentioned has 
unloaded the bowels and stomachs to some extent, the following powder 
should be given three times a day, mixed in a quart of linseed tea: 
Powdered ipecacuanha, one ounce and a half; powdered opium, half 
an ounce; mix and divide into twelve powders. When the foregoing 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 41 

preparation is not found effectual, oil of turpentine may be given in 
half-ounce doses three times a day in a quart of new sweet milk, and 
among' other remedies which maybe employed we may mention sulphate 
of copper, which should be given in dram doses, combined with 20 grains 
of opium and mixed with at least a quart of linseed tea. Nitrate of 
silver may also be given in 10-grain doses mixed or dissolved in a pint 
of distilled water. These latter remedies are especially efficacious in 
their effect on the ulcerations on the surface of the intestine, but it is 
not advisable to use them in an early stage. Whatever remedy is 
employed in treating dysentery, it should be given mixed in a consid- 
erable quantity of liquid, as in this way it brings the medicinal agent 
in contact with a large portion of the mucous surface of the diseased 
bowel. In addition to the treatment recommended, the diseased animal 
must be kept warm and comfortable, and great attention must be paid 
to its general comfort. 

SIMPLE ENTERITIS. 

Inflammation of the bowels must be held to signify in a general way 
inflammation of all parts of the mucous membrane of the bowels, though 
in some forms of what may properly be termed enteritis we find that 
the mucous, muscular, and serous coats of the bowels are involved, 
while in other cases only a limited portion of the mucous membrane of 
the bowel is affected. The different forms of this malady will all be 
described under the heading of enteritis. 

Causes. — This disease occurs at all seasons of the year, but most fre^ 
quently at times when there are great variations of temperature. Hard 
and long-continued work may operate as a cause in the case of oxen. 
Eating such food as musty hay and oats, forage containing acid plants, 
the leaves of trees infested with caterpillars, grass which has commenced 
to ferment after cutting, dusty hay, and grass covered with hoar frost 
may also give rise to enteritis. Drinking copiously of ice-cold water 
may also produce it. Exposure to a cold, damp wind or any influence 
which suddenly chills the surface of the body may operate as a cause. 

Symptoms. — Dryness of the muzzle, diminished appetite, partial or 
total cessation of rumination (see Loss of Cud, p. 32), symptoms of colic 
which are indicated by restlessness. The animal lies down and gets up 
frequently, looks round at its flank, raises its tail, paws with its front 
feet, and strikes with its feet at the abdomen. After a time the symp- 
toms of acute pain subside, and the animal lies down, but does not 
appear to be free from pain, turns its nose round on the flank and does 
not eat or ruminate. When injections are given they are soon ejected 
from the bowel, the passages are dry, glistening, and coated with mucus. 
Gas is frequently passed, frequent attempts to urinate are made, but 
only a small quantity of urine is passed at a time. Enteritis comes on 
suddenly and usually runs a rapid course, death taking place in four or 
five hours in fatal cases. When the animal has not been long exposed 



4 2 DISEASES OE CATTLE. 

to those conditions which produce the disease, recovery may take place 
in a comparatively short time ; iu exceptional cases, however, when the 
acute stage of the disease has subsided it may assume a chronic and 
lingering form. 

Treatment. — When the animal is seen at an early stage of the disease 
it should be bled to the extent of from 2 to 4 quarts. The age and 
condition of the animal must of course be taken into consideration in 
estimating the quantity of blood which should be abstracted. Half- 
ounce doses of laudanum should be given several times a day, mixed 
in a quart of linseed tea. 

HEMORRHAGIC ENTERITIS. 

This disease is not of frequent occurrence, but comes on suddenly, 
and is characterized by a hemorrhage or exudation of blood between 
the mucous and muscular coats of the bowels. The symptoms resemble 
those of the form of enteritis already described, only that they come 
on more suddenly and are of a more violent character. This form of 
enteritis chiefly occurs among working oxen during very hot weather. 
It is a more dangerous form of enteritis than that already described. 
When the acute symptoms subside the animal may show great weak- 
ness, which is owing to the great extent to which submucous hemor- 
rhage has taken place. At this stage of the disease bleeding is con- 
tra indicated; the passages may be streaked with blood and may even 
contain blood-clots. The treatment will be similar to that recommended 
in the first form of enteritis, bearing iu mind of cour.se that bleeding- 
should only be practiced at au early stage. After death the affected 
portion of the bowel is much thickened and increased in weight, owing 
to the quantity of blood which has been effused between the mucous 
and muscular coats. 

MERCURIAL ENTERITIS. 

This is an inflammation of the bowels which may be produced by 
cattle licking off the mercurial ointment which is sometimes rubbed on 
them when they are suffering from skin disease. (See Mercurial Poi- 
sons, p. 69.) 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are similar to those of the forms of enter- 
itis already described. In this form of the disease we also observe 
grinding of the teeth and dribbling of saliva from the corners of the 
mouth. Two or three days after the attack gas is frequently passed 
from the bowels; the belly is tucked up and the flanks become hollow; 
the passages are very thin and coated with mucus. About the fifth or 
sixth day there is swelling of the tongue and mucous membrane of the 
mouth, quivering of the muscles of the limbs, staggering gait, great 
emaciation, and the animal dies about the twelfth day. Cruzel states 
that he has several times observed these symptoms in oxen which, in 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 43 

licking off the mercurial ointment with which they had been rubbed, 
had not swallowed more than 3 ounces. 

Post-mortem appearances. — There are traces of intense inflammation 
of the bowels and also of ulceration of their mucous surface. There 
are dropsical effusions in the chest and abdomen. 

Treatment. — Give drafts composed of the white of eggs and sweet 
milk, purgatives, followed by the administration of chlorate of potash. 
The eggs and sweet milk should be given immediately after it is known 
that the animal has swallowed the mercurial ointment, each quart of 
milk mixed with the whites of two eggs. A quart of this mixture is 
given three or four times at short intervals, say half an hour, and then 
a pint of castor oil should be given so as to produce purgation. After 
the castor oil has produced the desired effect, give half an ounce of 
chlorate of potash dissolved in a. quart of warm water three times a day. 
For debility and want of appetite resulting from such illness, half-dram 
doses of nux vomica combined with 2 drams of powdered gentian should 
be given three times a day. We need hardly say that from the fore- 
going statement the conclusion may be drawn that mercurial ointment 
can not be safely applied on cattle. 

ENTERITIS RESULTING FROM INVAGINATION OR INTUSSUSCEPTION, 
TWISTING, AND KNOTTING OF THE BOWELS. 

Inflammation may arise from a knot forming on some part of the small 
intestine, from the portion of the bowel becoming twisted oil itself, or 
from one part of the bowel slipping into another, which is termed in- 
vagination. This form of enteritis occurs occasionally in animals of the 
bovine species. 

Causes. — The small intestine, which in the ox rests on the right sac 
or division of the rumen, is from the position which it occupies predis- 
posed to this accident. It has been ascertained that animals which 
have shown symptoms of this malady have trotted, galloped, or made 
other violent exertions in coming from drinking, or that they have been 
chased by dogs or by animals of their own species while at pasture. 
The danger of jumping or running seems to be very slight to the ox if 
he is fasting, as the rumen in that case not being distended with food 
allows the small intestine to fall to the lower part of the abdomen, but 
when the rumen is distended the bowel does not slip so easily to this 
position. 

Symptoms. — This form of enteritis is manifested by severe colicky 
pains, the ox scrapes and strikes the ground with his front and hind 
feet alternately; keeps lying down and getting up again; he keeps his 
tail constantly raised and turns his nose frequently to his right flank; 
he is frequently bloated or tympanitic on that side. He refuses food, 
and does not ruminate, and for some hours suffers severe pains. At 
first he frequently passes thin dung, and also urinates frequently, but 
passes only a little urine at a time. On the second day the pains have 



44 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

become less acute; the animal remains lying' down; moans occasionally; 
his pulse is small and quick; he refuses food and does not ruminate. 
At this stage he does not pass any dung, though sometimes a small 
quantity of bloody mucus may be passed. On pressing forcibly the 
abdomen a gurgling sound is produced as if there was a quantity of 
liquid in the stomachs. There must be slight absorption of liquid from 
the digestive system, as the animal passes very little urine. This con- 
dition may continue for a considerable time, as cattle so affected may 
live for fifteen or even twenty days. 

Post-mortem appearance. — At death the bowels are found to be in- 
flamed, the inflammation always originating at the point where the 
intestine has been invaginated, twisted, or knotted. Sometimes the 
part is gangrenous, the compression of the blood-vessels preventing 
circulation and thus causing the death of the tissues. 

Treatment — Purgatives, anodynes, and other remedies are of no 
service in such cases, and bleeding also fails to produce any benefit. 
Indeed, it may be said truly that in such cases treatment is useless. 
Some cases are recorded in which an incision has been made in the 
flank so as to enable the operator to remove the lesion causing the 
enteritis by surgical means. Success has attended such efforts so 
rarely that we can not recommend them. 

CONSTIPATION. 

Constipation is rather to be regarded as a symptom of disease than a 
disease in itself. We frequently observe it in parturition fever, in that 
form of indigestion which is termed impaction of the third stomach, 
and as a result of gut-tie, invagination, twisting and knotting of the 
bowels. In order to remove the constipation the treatment must be 
applied to remove the causes which give rise to it. Calves sometimes 
suffer from constipation immediately after birth, and the meconium 
feces that accumulate in the bowels before birth is not passed, as is 
usually the case in calves. The cause of the disorder is supposed to 
be that the dams of such calves have been fed too exclusively on dry 
food before the calf's birth In such cases give an ounce of castor oil 
shaken up with an ounce of new milk. The mother's milk is the best 
food to prevent a recurrence of the constipation, as it contains a large 
amount of fatty matter which renders it laxative in its effects. 

INTESTINAL WORMS. 

We may state that cattle are less infested with intestinal parasites 
than any other species of domestic animal, and that it is rarely neces- 
sary to apply treatment for the removal of those parasites. Two differ- 
ent kinds of tapeworm and four species of roundworms have, however, 
been found in the intestines of the bovine species. An examination of 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 45 

the passages is the only certain method of determining the existence of 
worms in the bowels. 

Treatment. — To remove tapeworms give an ounce of oil of male fern 
three times a day in a pint of milk for three days in succession, and 
then on the fourth day give a pint of castor oil. For roundworms give 
2 drams of sulphate of iron three times a day, mixed in a little oats and 
middlings, and after continuing treatment for three days give a pint of 
castor oil as before described. Oil of turpentine may be given in doses 
of 1 ounce with milk, or santonine in dram doses in feed, to be followed 
by an oily purgative as described. In treating calves, which are more 
apt to be infested with worms than full-grown cattle, reduce the doses 
to one-fourth or a third. 

RUPTURES — VENTRAL HERNIA. 

Ventral hernia or rupture is an escape of some one of the abdominal 
organs through a rupture in the abdominal muscles, the skin remaining 
intact. The rumen, the small intestine, or part of the large intestine, 
and the fourth stomach are the parts which usually form a ventral her- 
nia in bovine animals. 

Causes. — Hernia is frequently produced by blows of the horns, kicks, 
and falls. In old cows hernia may sometimes occur without any direct 
injury. The occurrence of this form of hernia is explained by the 
increase in the size of the abdomen, which takes place in an advanced 
stage of pregnancy, causing a thinning and stretching of the muscular 
fibers, which at last may rupture or give way. 

HERNIA OF THE RUMEN. 

Hernia of the rumen is generally situated on the left side of the abdo- 
men, on account of the situation of the rumen. In exceptional cases it 
may take place on the right side, and in such cases it also generally 
happens that some folds of the intestine pass into the hernial sac. Her- 
nias have been classified into simple or complicated, recent or old, trau- 
matic (from mechanical injury) or spontaneous. 

In recent traumatic hernia there is swelling on the left side of the 
lower part of the abdomen. The swelling is greatest in the cases of 
hernia which are situated on the lower part of the abdomen. The skin 
covering the hernia will frequently present marks from which one may 
infer the direction from which the injury has proceeded. Unless an 
examination is made immediately after the injury has been inflicted it 
is difficult and sometimes impossible to ascertain the exact extent of 
the rupture, owing to the amount of swelling which takes place. Fre- 
quently there is no loss of appetite, fever, or other general symptons 
attending the injury. From the twelfth to the fifteenth day the swell- 
ing has generally subsided to such an extent that it is possible by an 
examination to determine the extent of the rupture. It is of impor- 
tance to ascertain whether the size of the hernia increases after feeding. 



46 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

In old cows what is termed spontaneous hernia may sometimes take 
place without any direct injury. The occurrence of this form of hernia 
is explained by the increase in the size of the abdomen, which takes 
place in an advanced stage of pregnancy, causing a thinning and 
stretching of the muscular fibres, which at last may rupture or give 
way. Such hernia frequently occurs about the end of the period of ges- 
tation, and in some instances have contained the right sac of the rumen, 
the omentum, the small and large intestines, a portion of the liver, and 
the pregnant uterus. 

In old hernia the swelling is soft and elastic, and if they have not 
contracted adhesions to the sides of the laceration they can be made to 
disappear on pressure being carefully applied. Sometimes this acci- 
dent is complicated by a rupture of the rumen, constituting a compli- 
cated hernia. If a portion of the contents of the rumen escape into the 
abdomen the case will be aggravated by the occurrence of peritonitis. 
The occurrence of such a complication is best ascertained by examining 
the animal immediately after the accident, when nothing intervenes 
between the surface of the rumen and the hand but the skin. 

hernia OP the bowel. (See Plate in, Fig. 6.) 

When the intestines form the contents of the hernia it will be situ- 
ated at the right side of the abdomen. In an intestinal hernia the 
swelling is usually not painful, of a doughy consistence or elastic, 
according as the intestine does or does not contain alimentary matter. 
This swelling can generally be made to disappear by pressure, and 
when it has been reduced one can easily recognize the direction and 
extent of the hernial opening. Hernise of the bowel which are situated 
at the upper and right side of the abdomen are usually formed by the 
small intestine. They are less easily reduced than hernia in a lower 
situation, but when reduction has been effected they are less readily 
reproduced than those occurring lower. In hernia of the small intes- 
tine adhesion of the protruding parts to the walls of the opening, or 
strangulation, are complications which sometimes take place. If adhe- 
sion has taken place the hernia can not be reduced by pressure, and 
when strangulation has occurred the animal shows symptoms of pain. 
In such a case the edges of the opening through which the bowel has 
passed press on the bowel so as at first to excite pain, then inflamma- 
tion, which if unrelieved usually terminates in gangrene. The animal 
is restless, turns its nose to the painful j>art, and shows those symp- 
toms which are usually collectively designated under the term colic. 
When the swelling or hernia contains a portion of peritoneum the 
swelling is soft and doughy, and does not produce the sensation on 
handling it that it does when it contains gas or alimentary matter. 

HERNIA OF THE RENNET OR FO»RTH STOMACH. 

This disease occasionally occurs in calves and is usually caused by a 
blow from a cow's horn on the right flank of the calf, and this may hap- 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 47 

pen when the calf is trying to suck a strange cow. After such an acci- 
dent a swelling forms on the right flank near the last rib. This swelling 
may be neither hot nor painful, even at first, and is soft to the touch. 
It can be made to disappear by careful pressure when the sides of the 
aperture through which it has passed can be felt. The application of 
pressure so as to cause the disappearance of the hernia is best made 
immediately after the occurrence of the accident, or when the cedenia 
which accompanies the swelling has disappeared. 

Treatment. — When a hernia is reducible — that is, can be pushed back 
into the abdomen — then it is advisable to maintain it in its natural situ- 
ation, and to allow the walls of the laceration to grow or adhere together. 
In treating of this subject in a previous work I translated the directions 
given by the late Henry Bouley, in an article on this subject contained 
in the " IsTouveau Dictionnaire de Medecine et de Chirurgie Veterinaire," 
and as his directions are both concise and practical, I here reproduce 
them: 

First prepare a bandage (must be of strong material) about 10 yards long and 
between 3 and 4 inches broad, and a flexible and solid piece of pasteboard adapted 
iu size to the surface of the hernia. The protruding organ must then bo replaced 
in the abdomen, and maintained in that position during the application of the 
bandage. This being done, a layer of melted pitch and turpentine is quickly spread 
on the skin covering the seat of the hernia, so as to extend somewhat beyond that 
space. This adhesive layer is then covered with a layer of fine tow, then a new 
layer of pitch and turpentine is spread on the tow, and the piece of pasteboard is 
applied on the layer of pitch, its outer surface being covered with the same prep- 
aration. Lastly, the bandage adhering to the piece of pasteboard, to the skin, and 
to the different turns which it makes around the body, is carefully applied so as to 
form an immovable, rigid, and solid bandage, which will retain the hernia long 
enough for the wound in the abdominal walls to heal permanently. 

In considering the point whether it is advisable to operate on a rup- 
ture or not, we may here notice some of those conditions which will 
have an unfavorable effect on the success of the operation. When the 
opening through which the protruding organs have passed is very large, 
the edges irregularly torn, and when the hernia has existed for a long 
time, the size of the abdomen will be found to have diminished, and the 
replacing and retention of the protruded parts will be attended with 
difficulty. The stitches which bring the edges of the rupture together 
in such cases are apt to tear out, so such an operation is not advisable. 
Small ruptures with smooth, regular edges heal with less difficulty. 
Hernia? situated on the under surface of the abdomen are more apt to 
recur when they have been returned, and the wounds made in operating 
on them are more difficult to heal than when the hernia is situated on 
the side. 

When the symptoms indicate that a hernia is strangulated, it is advis- 
able to incise the sac and return the hernia, enlarging the opening in 
the abdominal muscles to the size necessary to return the protruding 
organs, after which the wound in the abdominal muscles should be 
brought together by metallic or catgut stitches, and the wound in the skin 



48 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

afterwards brought together by stitches of silk thread. Then a com- 
press composed of ten or twelve folds of cloth must be placed smoothly- 
over the seat of injury and a bandage applied round the body, the two 
ends being fastened at the back. In the smaller kinds of hernia nitric 
acid may sometimes be applied with success. This treatment should 
not be applied until the swelling and inflammation attending the appear- 
ance of the hernia have subsided, then the contents of the hernia hav- 
ing been returned, the surface of skin corresponding to it is sponged 
over with a solution composed of one part 01 nitric acid to two parts of 
water. This treatment acts by exciting considerable inflammation, 
which has the effect of causing swelling and thus frequently closing 
the hernial opening and preventing the contents of the sac from return- 
ing. A second application should not be made until the inflammation 
excited by the first has subsided. In what is termed spontaneous her- 
nia it is useless to apply any kind of treatment. 

UMBILICAL HERNIA. 

The umbilicus, or navel, is the aperture through which the blood-ves- 
sels pass from the mother to the fetus, and naturally the sides of this 
aperture ought to adhere or unite after birth. In very young animals, 
and sometimes in new-born calves, this aperture in the abdominal mus- 
cles remains open and a part of the bowel or a portion of the mesentery 
may slip through the opening, constituting what is called umbilical 
hernia. The wall of the sac is formed by the skin which is covered on 
the inner surface by a layer of cellular tissue, and within this there is 
sometimes, but not always, a layer of peritoneum. The contents of 
the hernia may be formed by a part of the bowel, by a portion of the 
peritoneum, or may contain portions of both peritoneum and bowel. 
When the sac contains only peritoneum it has a doughy feel, but when 
it is formed by a portion of the bowel it will be more elastic on apply- 
ing pressure. 

Causes. — In the new-born animal the opening of the navel is gener- 
ally too large, and this opening may sometimes give way to the pres- 
sure of the bowel on account of the weak and relaxed condition of the 
abdominal muscles. This defective and abnormal condition of the 
umbilicus is frequently hereditary. It may be occasioned by roughly 
pulling away the umbilical cord ; through kicks or blows on the belly ; 
through any severe strainingby which the sides of the navel are stretched 
apart. We may mention in this connection that it is best in new-born 
calves to tie the umbilical cord tightly about two inches from the navel, 
aud then to leave it alone, when it will drop off in a few days in most 
cases, leaving the navel in a closed condition. 

Treatment. — It is well to bear in mind that many, and especially the 
smaller, umbilical hernia? will heal spontaneously, that is, nature effects 
a cure. As the animal gets older the abdominal muscles get stronger 
and possess more power of resistance to pressure, the bowels become 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 49 

larger and do not pass so readily through a small opening, so that from 
a combination of causes there is a gradual growing together or adhesion 
of the sides of the navel. In cases of umbilical hernia where there are 
no indications that a spontaneous cure will take place, the calf should 
be laid on its back, and immediately on this being done the hernia will 
often disappear into the abdomen. If it does not its reduction may be 
brought about by gentle handling, endeavoring, if need be, to empty 
the organs forming the hernia before returning them into the abdomen. 
After the hernia has been returned the hair should be clipped from the 
skin covering it and a compress composed of ten or twelve folds of 
linen or cotton should be applied, first smearing the skin with pitch 
and then a bandage of about 3 inches wide should be passed round the 
body so. as to retain the compress in position. The lower part of the 
compress should be smeared with pitch, and also those portions of the 
bandage which pass over it, so as to keep it solid and prevent it from 
shifting. In some cases it will be found that the contents of the sac 
can not be returned into the abdomen, and this generally arises from 
the fact that some part of the contents of the sac has grown to or 
become adherent to the edges of the umbilical opening. In such a case 
the skin must be carefully laid open in the long direction, the adhesions 
of the protruding organs carefully separated from the umbilicus, and 
after the protruding parts have been returned into the abdomen the 
sides of the umbilicus must be freshened if necessary by paring, and 
then the edges of the opening brought together by catgut stitches; the 
wound in the skin must then also be brought together by stitches. The 
woun 1 must be carefully dressed every day and a bandage passed 
round the body so as to cover and protect the part operated on. 

In small hernia nitric acid has been used successfully in the same 
manner as has been described in speaking of the treatment of ventral 
hernia. Sulphuric acid has also been used for a similar purpose, dilut- 
ing it to the extent of one part of acid to three or five of water. In 
thin-skinned animals the weaker preparations ought to be preferred, 
and caution must be exercised in using such preparations so as not to 
destroy the tissues on which they are applied. 

Another method of treatment is, after the contents of the sac have 
been returned into the abdomen, to tie a piece of strong waxed cord 
round the pendulous portion which formed the outer covering of the 
hernia. The string is apt to slacken after two or three days, when a 
new piece of cord should be applied above the first one. The constric- 
tion of the skin sets up inflammation, which generally extends to the 
umbilicus and causes the edges to adhere together, and by the time 
the portion of skin below the ligature has lost its vitality and dropped 
off, the umbilicus is closed and there is no danger of the abdominal 
organs protruding through it. This is what takes place when this 
method has a favorable result, though if the umbilicus does not become 
adherent and the skin sloughs, the bowels will protrude through the 
opening. 

24697- — 4 



50 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



GUT-TIE— PEI!IT< >NEAL IIEHNIA. 



In peritoneal hernia of the ox a loop or knuckle of intestine enters 
from the abdomen into a rent in that part of the peritoneum which is 
situated at the margin of the hip bone and passes under the remains of 
the spermatic cord. After the tearing of the peritoneum the spermatic 
cord is partially separated from its former points of attachment, so as 
to form a loose band. The portion of intestine is pressed through the 
peritoneal opening into the pelvis, and frequently curves or winds 
behind the spermatic cord and is pressed forward in a direction oppo- 
site to that it followed when entering the peritoneal rent. The onward 
pressure of the bowel, as well as the occasional turning of the latter 
round the spermatic corcl, is the cause of the cord exercising consider- 
able pressure on the bowel, which occasions irritation, obstructs the 
passage of excrement, and excites inflammation, which terminates in 
gangrene and death. 

The tearing of this fold of peritoneum generally occurs on the right side, 
not on the left, as incorrectly stated by Youatt, and the reason of its occur- 
ring generally ou the right side is that the bowels are mostly situated on 
that side of the abdomen, while the paunch occupies the left side and 
extends to the entrance of the pelvis. (Plate i.) The rent in the 
peritoneum is situated at the upper and front part of the pelvis, nearer 
to the sacrum than the pubis. Besides the form of peritoneal hernia 
already described there is a second form, which occurs as follows: 
After castration the spermatic cord retracts into the abdomen on 
account of its elasticity, and its freshly-cut end becomes adherent to 
the peritoneum, leaving a free space between it and the peritoneum, 
however through which a part of the intestine may enter, but can not 
slip out again, on account of its subsequeut increase in size. It also 
happens that the free end of the spermatic cord may become adherent 
in such a way that it forms a cord or band around the "bowel, causing 
strangulation. This last form seems to have led to the appellation of 
gut-tie being applied to this accident. It may be mentioned that peri- 
toneal hernia may occur on the left side, though this rarely happens. 

Causes. — Among the causes of peritoneal hernia considerable impor- 
tance is attached to a method of castration which is practiced in cer- 
tain districts, viz., the tearing or rupturing of the spermatic cord by 
main force, instead of dividing it at a proper distance above the testi- 
cle in a surgical manner. After this violent and rough method of oper- 
ating, the cord retracts into the abdomen and its stump becomes adher- 
ent to some part of the peritoneum, or it may wind around the bowel 
and then the stump becomes adherent so that strangulation of the 
bowel results. The rough dragging on the cord may also cause a tear 
in the peritoneum, the result of which need not be described. The 
severe exertion of ascending hills and mountains, drawing heavy loads, 
or the straining which oxen undergo while fighting each other, may also 
give rise to peritoneal hernia. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 51 

Symptoms. — The ox suddenly becomes very restless, stamps with his 
feet, moves hack aud forward, hurriedly lies down, rises, moves his tail 
uneasily, and kicks at his belly with the foot of the affected side. 
The pain evinced may diminish, but soon returns again. In the early 
stage there are frequent passages of dung, but after the lapse of eight- 
een to twenty-four hours this ceases, the bowel apparently being 
emptied up to the point of strangulation, and the passages now consist 
only of a little mucus mixed with blood. When injections are given at 
tliis time the water passes out of the bowel without even being col- 
ored. The animal always lies down on the side where the hernia 
exists and stretches out his hind feet in a backward direction. These 
two particular symptoms serve to distinguish this affection from enter- 
itis and invagination of the bowel. As time passes, the animal becomes 
quieter, but this cessation of pain may indicate that gangrene of the 
bowel has set in, and may, therefore, under certain circumstances, be 
considered a precursor of death. Gangrene may take place in from 
four to six days, when perforation of the bowel may occur and death 
result in a short time. 

Treatment. — The ox should in the first place be examined by oiling 
the hand and arm and passing it into the rectum; the hand should be 
passed along the margin of the pelvis, beginning at the sacrum and con- 
tinuing downward towards the inguinal ring, when a soft painful swell- 
ing will be felt, which may vary from the size of an apple to that of 
two fists. This swelling will be felt to be tightly compressed by the 
spermatic cord. It very rarely happens that there is any similar swell- 
ing ou the left side, though it is best in such cases to make a thorough 
examination. The bowel has sometimes been released from its position 
by driving the ox down a hill, by causing him to jump from a height of 
2 feet to the ground, and the expedient of trotting him has been resorted 
to with the hope that the jolting movement might bring about a release 
of the bowel. If the simple expedients mentioned have beeu tried and 
failed, then the hand being passed into the rectum should be pressed 
gently on the swelling in an upward and forward direction so as to 
endeavor to push the imprisoned portion of the bowel back into the 
abdomen. While this is being done the ox's hind feet should stand on 
higher ground than the front, so as to favor the slipping out of the 
bowel by its own weight, and at the same time an assistant should 
squeeze the animal's loins so as to cause it to bend downward and so 
relax the band formed by the spermatic cord. If the imprisoned por- 
tion of gut is freed, which may be ascertained by the disappearance of 
the swelling, the usual sounds produced by the bowels moving in the 
abdomen will be heard, and in a few hours the feces and urine will be 
passed as usual. If the means mentioned fail in releasing the impris- 
oned portion of the gut, then an incision about 4 inches long must be 
made in the right flank in a downward direction, the hand introduced 
into the abdomen, the situation and condition of swelling exactly ascer 



52 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tamed, and then a probe-pointed knife inserted between the imprisoned, 
bowel and band compressing 1 it, and turned outward against the band, 
the latter being then cautiously divided and the imprisoned gut allowed 
to escape, or, if necessary, the bowel should be drawn gently from its 
position into the abdomen. The wound in the flank must be brought 
together in the same way as in the case of the wound made in operat- 
ing for impaction of the rumen. 

WOUNDS OF THE ABDOMEN. 

A wound of the abdomen may merely penetrate the skin, but as such 
cases are not attended with much danger, nor their treatment with 
much difficulty, we propose to consider here merely those wounds 
which penetrate the entire thickness of the abdominal walls and expose 
to a greater or less extent the organs contained in that cavity. 

Causes. — Such accidents may be occasioned by animals falling on 
fragments of broken glass or other sharp objects. A blow from the 
horn of another animal may produce a wound which penetrates the 
abdomen. Exposure and protrusion of some of the abdominal organs 
may also be occasioned by the incautious use of caustics in the treat- 
ment of umbilical or ventral hernia. The parts which generally escape 
through an abdominal wound are the small intestine and floating colon. 

Symptoms. — When the abdominal wound is small, the bowel exposed 
presents the appearance of a small round tumor, but in a few moments 
a loop of intestine may emerge from the opening. The animal then 
shows symptoms of severe pain by pawing with his feet, which has the 
effect of accelerating the passage of new loops of intestine through the 
wound, so that the mass which they form may even touch the ground. 
The pain becomes so great that the ox now not only paws but lies down 
and rolls, thus tearing and crushing his bowels. In such cases it is 
best to slaughter the animal at once; but in the case of a valuable 
animal in which tearing and crushing of the bowels has not taken 
place, the bowels should be returned and the wounds in the muscle and 
skin brought together in a manner somewhat similar to that which was 
described in speaking of ventral hernia. 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND SPLEEN. 

JAUNDICE — THE YELLOWS — CONGESTION OF THE LIVER. 

[Plate iv.] 

When jaundice exists there is a yellow appearance of the white of 
the eyes, and of the mucous membrane of the mouth. A similar aspect 
of the skin may also be observed in animals which are either partly or 
altogether covered with white hair. Jaundice is then merely a symp- 
tom of disease and ought to direct attention to ascertaining if possible 
the cause or causes which have given rise to it. A swollen condition 
of the mucous membrane of that part of the bowel called the duodenum 
may produce jaundice, as that mechanically closes the orifice of the bij- 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 53 

iary duct. In constipation there is an inactive or torpid condition of 
the bowel, and the bile which passes into the intestine may be absorbed 
and cause the yellow staining of jaundice. Jaundice is one of the 
symptoms of Texas fever and depends on the congested condition of the 
liver existing in that disease. It may also arise from the presence of 
parasites or gallstones in the ducts, forming a mechanical obstruction 
to the onward flow of bile. It may also arise from injury to the nerv- 
ous system impeding the functions of the nerves supplied to the liver 
and checking or diminishing the secretion of bile. This form of jaun- 
dice is, so far as we know, unknown in cattle. The conditions under 
which jaundice most commonly calls for treatment are when cattle have 
been highly fed and kept in a state of inactivity. At such a time there 
is an excess of nutritive elements carried into the blood, which is asso- 
ciated with increased fullness of the portal vein and hepatic artery. 
When continued high feeding has produced this congested state of the 
liver the functions of that organ become disordered, so that a consider- 
able portion of the bile instead of being excreted and passing into the 
intestine is absorbed by the hepatic veins. 

Symptoms. — This disease occurs most frequently among stall-fed cattle. 
Pressure along the margin of the short ribs on the right side produces 
pain; the appetite is poor and the animal shows hardly any inclination 
to drink; the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth are yellow, the 
urine has a yellow or brown appearance, the animal lies down much 
and moves with reluctance, moans occasionally and has a tottering gait. 
The ears and horns are alternately hot and cold; in cows the secretion 
of milk is much diminished, and that which is secreted has a bitter 
taste; sometimes the animal has a dry, painful cough and presents a dull, 
stupefied appearance. 

Treatment. — In such cases it is advisable to produce a free action of 
the bowels, so as to remove the usually congested condition of the portal 
vein and liver. For this purpose we recommend the administration of 
the following dose: Sulphate of soda, 16 ounces; fluid extract of tar- 
axacum half an ounce. The sulphate of soda is dissolved by stirring 
it up in 2 quarts of tepid water. The extract of taraxacum is mixed 
in with, it, and the mixture should be administered at one dose. When 
a purgative effect has been produced, a dram of sulphate of cinchonidia, 
half an ounce of fluid extract of taraxacum and an ounce of spirits of 
nitrous ether may be shaken up in a pint of water, and given night and 
morning for several days in succession. This treatment may be assisted 
by giving occasional injections of warm water and soap. The diet 
should be laxative and moderate in quantity, and may consist of coarse 
bran mash, pulped roots, grass in the season and hay in moderate quan- 
tity. • 

HEPATITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. 

This is a more advanced stage of the disease already described. Hep- 
atitis is frequently restricted to a special part of the liver, and the 



54 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

rest of the organ outside the area of inflammation may continue com- 
paratively healthy. 

The gland cells are the seat of inflammation, and the formation of an 
abscess or abscesses is a usual result. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are sometimes obscure, and their real 
significance is frequently overlooked. This may be accounted for by 
the fact that only a part of the liver is affected aud that by the continu- 
ance of congestion in that organ the affected parts gradually undergo 
those changes which are characteristic of inflammation. The most 
prominent symptoms are yellowness of the white of the eye, and of the 
membrane lining the mouth; the appetite is poor; the body presents an 
emaciated appearance, but there is frequently fullness at the lower 
part of the abdomen. The gait is weak, and the animal lies down more 
than usual, and while doing so frequently has its head turned round 
resting on the side of its chest. 

Post-mortem appearances. — There is frequently a quantity of serum in 
the abdomen. The liver is usually enlarged. Instead of having the 
dark-red appearance of congestion it has a brownish or grayish red 
tint in some parts, with yellowish red or pale yellow in others. Its 
tissue is loosened and easily torn, which is owing to its having lost its 
natural cohesion. Abscesses or deposits of purulent matter are found 
in its substance. The liver sometimes becomes adherent to the dia- 
phragm or other adjacent parts through inflammation of its capsule. 
As a result of another form of inflammation a considerable part of the 
tissue of the liver becomes hardened or indurated, when its surface pre- 
sents a nodulated appearance, and sometimes in cows that have died 
after calving the liver has been found smaller than usual, so soft that 
it is easily torn, and of a uniform yellow color. 

Treatment. — Half a pound of sulphate of soda and half an ounce of 
fluid extract of taraxacum should be mixed with 2 quarts of tepid 
water, and this should be given night and morning until a relaxed con- 
dition of the bowels is produced, as the object is not to cause a strong- 
purgation, but a laxative effect which should be continued for some 
days. The diet should be similar to that which has been recommended 
in speaking of congestion of the liver. After the treatment with laxa- 
tives has been continued for several days a dram of sulphate of cin- 
chonidia and a dram of nitro-muriatic acid should be shakenupin a quart 
of cohl water, aud this dose should be given three times a day until the 
animal has regained its strength. Oil of turpentine should be rubbed 
in well once a day over the region of the liver. The skin on which it 
should be applied extends from the false ribs on the right side to 6 
inches in front of the last one, and from the backbone to 12 inches on 
the right side of it. Extreme heat and pasturing animals on low lying 
ground are conditions favorable to the production of this disease. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 55 

THE FLUKE DISEASE. 

The fluke, or Faseiola h&patica, is a parasite which infests the biliary 
duets of the liver. It varies in size from an inch to a little over an inch 
in length and has a brownish flattened body. It belongs to the group 
of trematoda, or sucking worms. The fluke passes through several dif- 
ferent stages of development before it reaches the livers of the animals 
which it infests, and it is not only found in cattle, but in sheep and 
several species of wild animals. Parasites which have attained their 
full development usually after a time pass out of the animals which 
harbor them and die, when they have attained the limit of their exist- 
ence. It has been estimated that after the death and decomposition of 
a full-grown fluke upwards of 40,000 eggs will be liberated from its 
uterus. The agency of winds, rains, insects, the feet of cattle and 
other animals, disperse and carry these ova to considerable distances, 
so that a large proportion of them find their way to pools, ditches, and 
streams, where the conditions exist necessary to their future develop- 
ment. After a time they reach that stage in which they are transferred 
with the fodder or drink to the digestive organs of their host. From 
the foregoing statement it will readily be understood that this disease 
prevails on low swampy land, and especially on land which is subject 
to inundation. During a wet, rainy season the area over which it 
extends becomes much wider, and the losses which the disease occa- 
sions are consequently greater. 

Symptoms. — The presence of these parasites in the biliary ducts does 
not at first appear to impair the animal's health; indeed, it has been 
stated that for a short time the animals appear to thrive better. This 
is accounted for by the statement that the presence of the flukes in 
the biliary ducts stimulates the secretion of bile, that this occasions a 
more complete digestion of the fatty elements of the food, and a con- 
sequent improvement in the animal's condition in the early stage of the 
disease. When the flukes attain their full size, however, and are pres- 
ent in large numbers, they set up inflammation in the walls of the bil- 
iary ducts. As a result of the presence of those parasites the liver 
becomes indurated and its secreting structure becomes atrophied or 
wasted. The affected animals become dull and weak ; swellings of a 
dropsical nature form between the jaws and along the throat. There 
are fever, great emaciation, and dropsical accumulations in the chest 
and belly, which are soon followed by death. 

Treatment is of no avail. Affected animals should be killed at an 
early stage of the disease. 

SPLENITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE SPLEEN. 

With few exceptions veterinarians agree that the recognition of dis- 
ease affecting the spleen is rarely made during life, unless in the case 
of certain febrile and contagious diseases, in which the spleen is known 



5G DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

to be involved to a greater or less extent. The writer agrees with the 
general opinion on this point, as in those cases in which he has seen 
the spleen show traces of disease, and in which the disease was of a 
primary and not of a secondary character, the symptoms have been so 
obscure as to render it impossible to draw any certain conclusion as to 
their significance. Cruzel, a French writer on the diseases of cattle, 
stated, however, that he had frequently met with cases of inflammation 
of the spleen in cattle, and that he had no difficulty in recognizing 
them. We give here the substance of Cruzel's account of inflammation 
of the spleen, though we think that to judge from his description of the 
post-mortem appearances it might more properly be termed congestion 
of the spleen and liver than inflammation of the spleen. Splenitismay 
occur as an acute affection, as very acute or intense, or as a chronic 
form of disorder. 

Causes. — Oxen of a sanguine temperament which are worked hard, 
and which, owing to the nature of their work, are frecpiently interrupted 
while ruminating, are from these conditions exposed to sudden attacks 
of congestion of the spleen. Cold and wet, the long- continued use of 
very nutritive forage, and severe exertion, by increasing the circulation 
and bringing on disorder of the digestive functions, may ultimately 
give rise to this malady. The custom of working oxen immediately 
after they have been fed, their stomachs filled with food, and there- 
fore incapable of severe exertion, is regarded as a frequent cause of 
this malady. 

Symptoms of a general character may be observed, such as dryness 
of the muzzle, loss of appetite, absence of rumination, gait slow and 
stiff, and sensibility when pressure is applied on the loins. But the 
symptoms which are specially characteristic of splenitis are as follows : 
Shivering, tension of the left flank, and difficult breathing; the ox walks 
with difficulty, as if the bending of the left fore and hind legs caused 
pain. Fullness of the left flank, but differing from the fullness of tym- 
panitis or hoven, as it is produced by displacement of the spleen in a 
backward direction, so that when the flank is percussed or lightly ctruck 
with the tips of the fingers a dull sound is produced like that occa- 
sioned by the resistance offered by a soft body. The congested condi- 
tion of the spleen brings about its displacement. The following case 
illustrates how the disease arises: An 8-year-old ox had been fed 
heavily on dry lucern, and was immediately afterwards put to work 
drawing gravel ; he contiuued working for two hours without showing 
sickness, but did not ruminate. All at once, however, his flank swelled 
up and he showed considerable pain when pressed strongly on the left 
flank. This case is referred to in order to show the practical importance 
of the symptom last described. 

Congestion of the spleen occurs suddenly as the consequence of inter- 
rupted rumination and hard work. Its duration is short if treatment 
is applied without delay, but longer if the action of the cause is inter- 
mittent. In the first case there is a rapid recovery owing to the speedy 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 57 

subsidence of the congestion. When the congestion is of long dura- 
tion the malady becomes chronic, and the result may be fatal if the 
cause continues to act violently and without cessation. The account 
of the following case illustrates the foregoing statement: 

A 6-year-old ox was fed a large quantity of green corn about mid- 
night; he was afterwards driven so fast that he could not ruminate, 
and then compelled to draw a heavy load. At 10 o'clock in the morn- 
ing he fell down, when it was noticed that his abdomen was swollen; 
he was forced up and had hardly been unyoked when he fell dead. 

Lesions. — On opening this ox a large quantity of green corn was found 
in the rumen which had only been masticated once. There were sev- 
eral quarts of blood in the abdomen, the spleen was much enlarged, 
and had several ruptures at different points along its posterior border. 

Treatment. — Bleeding is the first means to be employed in treating 
congestion of the spleen. The bleeding should be copious, and the first 
abstraction of blood should not be less than five quarts. In making 
this estimate the author is supposed to take as the type a working ox 
which was in good condition at the time of his becoming affected with 
congestion of the spleen. If there is not a marked improvement in the 
animal's state two hours after he is bled he should be bled again. In 
cases of this kind, which are not of a very acute character, bathing of 
the left flank with cold water is recommended. 

In addition to the above measures mild, soothing, acidulated drafts 
should be given, low diet, rest, and occasional injections of a small 
quantity of lukewarm water. 

DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. 
PERITONITIS. 

Peritonitis may be divided into certain varieties, according to its 
mode of causation; (1) Traumatic, when the disease arises from wounds 
penetrating the abdomen; (2) Idiopathic, when tiie disease arises from 
exposure to cold and wet. The second variety of peritonitis occurs 
chiefly among working oxen, and it may here be mentioned that in those 
animals the membrane which lines the abdomen and covers the outer 
surface of the bowels is apt to become congested by sudden chilling of 
the skin, which empties its rich network of small blood-vessels to a 
large extent, so that the blood must accumulate in some part of the 
interior of the body. 

Causes. — When a working ox has been warmed up and is sweating 
during hard work he may have to stand for some time exposed to cold 
wind or to a cold rain, which soon chills the surface of his body. When 
cattle are driven through rivers or into ponds, so that their bodies 
become wet, and they afterward lie on the ground when the air is cold, 
such exposure may produce peritonitis. Wounds penetrating the abdo- 
men may also cause it. 

Symptoms. — A continuous or occasional shivering; the animal lies 



58 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

down, but appears uneasy 5 it frequently turns its Lead towards its belly 
and lows plaintively;, pressure on the flanks produces pain; has no 
appetite; muzzle is dry and no rumination; while standing its legs are 
placed well under its body; pulse small and hard. The evacuations 
from the bowels are dry and hard. If this disease is complicated by 
the presence of inflammation of the bowels the pain is more severe and 
the animal is more restless. The skin is cold and dry in the early stage 
of this disease, but in a more advanced stage this condition may be 
succeeded by heat of the skin and quick breathing. The fits of trem- 
bling, uneasiness, small and hard pulse and tension of the left flank are 
symptoms the presence of which should enable one to reach the conclu- 
sion that peritonitis exists. 

Post-mortem appearance. — The membrane lining the abdomen and 
covering the surface of the bowels is reddened to a greater or less extent, 
and there is usually considerable serous or watery fluid collected in the 
abdomen. 

Treatment. — When we have to do with the traumatic form of perito- 
nitis, as when the horn of another animal has been thrust through the 
abdominal walls, this lesion must be treated in accordance with direc- 
tions before given, but the general treatment must be similar to that 
which follows : Peritonitis resulting from castration or from parturition 
fever must also be treated in connection with the special conditions 
which give rise to it, as the general treatment of this disease must be 
modified to some extent by the exciting cause. 

The body should be warmly clothed, and it is advisable, when prac- 
ticable, to have a blanket which has been wrung out of hot water 
placed over the abdomen, then covered by several dry blankets, which 
are maintained in position by straps or ropes passing round the body. 
The wet blanket must be changed as it cools — the object of treatment 
being to warm the surface of the body and to determine as much blood 
to the skin as possible. When the matter of clothing the body has 
been attended to the aim of treatment must be: (1) To obtain rest for 
the affected parts ; (2) to subdue inflammation and fever; (3) to sustain 
the animal's strength. The first indication is to give a dose of lauda- 
num or powdered opium. An ounce and a half of the first or a dram 
of the second may be given in a pint of tepid water, and if the pain is 
not perceptibly allayed the dose should be repeated in two hours. It 
is dangerous to give purgatives in peritonitis, as they stimulate the 
movements of the bowels, increase the suffering, and aggravate the 
disease. Tincture of aconite should be given in ten-drop doses every 
two hours for the purpose of reducing fever and inflammation. Gruzel 
strongly recommends bleeding for this purpose, but it should only be 
applied when the pulse is strong and when the animal is in good con- 
dition, and it should be borne in mind that it can not have any bene- 
ficial effect, but the reverse, if inflammation has existed for two days. 
The diet should consist of laxative food and drinks, such as linseed 
tea. If peritonitis assumes chronic form the diet should be nutritious, 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 59 

such as hay, cornstalks, linseed cake, grass, etc., and iodide of potas- 
sium should be given in dram doses dissolved in a pint of water three 
times a day. 

DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN — ASCITES. 

In this disease there is a serous or watery effusion in the cavity of 
the abdomen. 

Causes. — When old animals are worked and fed on innutritious food 
they become what is termed anaemic; or, in other words, their blood 
becomes impoverished and dropsy is a common result of such treat- 
ment. An innutritious and insufficient diet will produce the same 
effect in young animals. The exposure of cattle to sudden changes of 
temperature and the chilling effect of cold and wet acting on the skin 
may develop this disease. It is one of the results of peritonitis, and 
may also arise from acute or chronic inflammation of the liver, such as 
is of common occurrence when flukes are present in the liver in large 
numbers. When dropsy depends on disease of the liver it develops 
very gradually, and this may also be said in regard to it when its occur- 
rence is associated with an insufficient amount of nutriment having 
been supplied to the animal. 

Symptoms. — A gradual increase in the size of the abdomen at its 
lower part, while the flanks become hollow; pallor of the mucous mem- 
brane of the month and eye; weak and sluggish gait; want of appetite, 
and irregularity in ruminating. On percussion or tapping the surface 
of the abdomen with the fingers a dull sound is produced. If the hand 
and arm are oiled and passed into the rectum as far as possible, on 
moving the hand from one side to the other, the fluctuation caused by 
the presence of fluid in the abdomen may be felt. 

Treatment. — The diet should be nutritious, and in those cases where 
we have merely to deal with anaemia (the bloodless state) arising from 
insufficient diet the use of tonics and diuretics, at the same time keep- 
ing the skin warm, will bring about a gradual absorption of the fluid 
contained in the abdomen. One of the following powders should be 
mixed with the animal's food three times a day; or, if there is any 
uncertainty as to its being taken in that way, it should be mixed with 
sirup, so as to form a paste, and smeared well back on the animal's 
tongue with a flat w«oden spoon: Carbonate of iron, 3 ounces; pow- 
dered gentian, 3 ounces; powdered nitrate of potash, 3 ounces. Mix 
and divide into twelve powders. The administration of purgatives 
which promote a watery discharge from the mucous surface of the bow- 
els, also tends, by diminishing the serum of the blood, to bring about 
absorption and a gradual removal of the fluid contained in the abdo- 
men. Large doses should not be given, but moderate doses should be 
administered morning and night, so as to produce a laxative effect on 
the bowels for some days. To attain this end the following may be 
used: Sulphate of soda, 8 ounces; powdered ginger, half an ounce; 
mix in 2 quarts of tepid water, and then give at one dose. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 

Plate I: 

Tositiou of the first stomach (paunch, rumen) on the left side: a, the situation 
of the rumen; h, the spleen or milt resting on it; c, the- skin and muscles 
removed from the ribs to show position of the lungs and their relation to 
the paunch. 
Plate II : 

Fig. 1. Stomach of a full-grown sheep £ natural size. After Thanhoffer, from R- 
Meade Smith's Physiology of Domestic Animals : a, rumen or first stomach ; 
1), reticulum or second stomach ; c, omasxim or third stomach ; d, ahomasum 
or fourth stomach; e, oesophagus or gullet opening into first and second 
stomachs ; /, opening of fourth stomach into small intestine ; g, opening of 
second stomach into third; h, opening of third stomach into fourth. 
The lines indicate the course of the food in the stomachs. The incompletely 
masticated food passes down the oesophagus or gullet into the first and second 
stomachs, in which a churning motion is kept up, carrying the food from 
side to side and from stomach to stomach. From the first stomach regurgi- 
tation takes place — that is, the food is returned through the gullet to the 
mouth to be more thoroughly masticatetl or chewed, and this constitutes 
what is known as " chewing the cud." From the second stomach the food 
passes into the third, and from the third into the fourth or true stomach, and 
from there into the intestines. 
Fig. 2. Stomach of ox. After Colin, from R. Meade Smith's Physiology of Domes- 
tic Animals : «, rumen ; b, reticulum ; c, omasum ; d, abomasum ; e, oesopha- 
gus; /, opening of fourth stomach into small intestine. 
Furstenberg calculated that in an ox of 1,400 pounds weight the capacity of the 
stomachs is as follows : 

Per cent. 

Rumen 149.25 quarts, liquid measure 62. 4 

Reticulum 23.77 quarts 10 

Omasum 36.98 quarts 15 

Abomasum 29.05 quarts 12. 6 

According to Colin — Quarts. 

The capacity of a beef's stomach is 266. 81 

Small intestine 69. 74 

Caecum 9. 51 

Colon and rectum 25. 58 

Plate III: 

Fig. 1. Clinical thermometer, if natural size. This is used to-determine the tem- 
perature of the animal body. The thermometer is passed into the rectum 
after having been moistened with a little saliva from the mouth, or after 
having had a little oil or lard rubbed upon it to facilitate its passage. There 
it is allowed to remain two or three minutes, then withdrawn, and the teni- 
60 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 61 

Plate III — Continued. 

perature read as in any ordinary thermometer. The clinical thermometer is 
made self- registering — that is, the mercury in the stem remains at the height 
to which it was forced hy the heat of the body until it is shaken back into 
the bulb by taking hold of the upper portion of the instrument and giving 
it a short, sharp swing. The normal temperature of cattle varies from 
100° to 103° F. In young animals it is somewhat higher than in old. 
The thermometer is a very useful instrument and frequently is the means by 
which disease is detected before the appearance of any external sign. 

Fig. 2. Simple probang, used to dislodge foreigu bodies like apples, potatoes, 
eggs, etc., which have become fastened or stuck in the oesophagus or gullet. 

Fig. 3. Grasping or forceps probang. This instrument, also intended to remove 
obstructions from the gullet, has a spring forceps at one end in the place of 
the cup-like arrangement at the end of the simple probang. The forceps are 
closed while the probang is being introduced; their blades are regulated by 
a screw in the handle of the instrument. This probang is used to grasp and 
withdraw an article which may have lodged in the gullet and can not be 
forced into the stomach by use of the simple probang. 

Fig. 4. Wooden gag, used when the probang is to be passed. The gag is a piece 
of wood which fits iu the animal's mouth; a cord passes over the head to 
hold it in place. The central opening in the wood is intended for the passage 
of the probang. 

Figs, ba and 5b. Trocar and canula; 5« shows the trocar covered by the canula; 
5b, the canula from which the trocar has been withdrawn. This instrument 
is used when the rumen or first stomach becomes distended with gas. The 
trocar covered by the canula is forced into the rumen, the trocar withdrawn, 
and the canula allowed to remain until the gas has escaped. 

Fig. 6. Section at right angles through the abdominal wall, showing a hernia or 
rupture. Taken from DAborval, Diet, de Med., de Chir. et de Hyg.: a a, The 
abdominal muscles cut across; v, opening in the abdominal wall permitting 
i i, the intestines, to pass through and outward between the abdominal wall 
and the skin ; p p, peritoneum or membrane lining the abdominal cavity 
carried through the opening o, by the loop of intestine and forming the sac 
S, the outer walls of which are marked b / b. 
Plate IV : 

The liver is composed of innumerable small lobules from ^ to tV inch in diameter. 
The lobules are held together by a small amount of fibrous tissue in which the 
bile ducts and larger blood vessels are lodged. Fig. 1 of the diagram illus- 
trates the structure of a lobule : r, r, interlobular veins, or the veins between 
the lobules. There are branches of the portal vein which carries blood from 
the stomach and intestines to the liver ; c, c, capillaries, or very fine blood ves- 
sels, extending as a very fine network between the groups of liver cells from 
the interlobular vein to the center of the lobule and emptying there into the 
intralobular vein to the center of the lobule ; v, c, intralobular vein, or the 
vein within the lobule. This vessel passes out of the lobule and there 
becomes the sublobular vein; ?>, s, sublobular vein. This joins other similar 
veins and helps to form the hepatic vein through which the blood leaves the 
liver; d, d, the position of the liver cells between the meshes of the capil- 
laries; A, A, branches of the hepatic artery to the interlobular connective 
tissue and the walls of the large veins and large bile ducts. These branches 
are seen at r, r, and form the vena vascularis ; v, v ,vena vascularis; i,i. branches 
of the hepatic artery entering the substance of the lobule and connecting 
with capillaries from the interlobular vein. The use of the hepatic artery 
is to nourish the liver while the other vessels carry blood to lie modified by 
the liver cells in certain important directions ; g, branches of the bile ducts 



62 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Plate IV — Continued. 

carrying bile from, the various lobules into the gall bladder and into the 
intestines; x, x, intralobular bile capillaries between the liver cells. These 
form a network of very minute tubes surrounding each ultimate cell which 
receives the bile as it is formed by the liver cells and carried outward as 
described. 
Fig. II. Isolated liver cells: c, blood capillary; a, fine bile capillary channel. 
Plate V: 

Appearance of ergot in hay: 1, blue grass; 2, timothy; 3, wild rye; 4, red-top. 
Ergot is a fungus which may affect any member of the grass family. The spore 
of the fungus, by some means brought in contact with the undeveloped seed 
of the grass, grows, obliterates the seed and practically takes its place. 
When hay affected with ergot is fed to animals it is productive of a charac- 
teristic and serious affection or poisoning known as ergotism. 
Plate VI : 

Illustrates the effects of ergot. The lower part of the limb of a cow showing the 
loss of skin and flesh in a narrow ring around the pastern bone, and the 
exposure of the bono itself. 



PLATE II 




oS.r<fj,f-<j,c/i/. 



STOMACH OF RUMINANT 



PLATE Ml. 



d2S^ 




PLATE IV. 



IT. 



C 




J&uaials, ffl&l Stknr/<w , ?rt'./- ./<PM. ■ /ays 369. 

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY" OF THE LIVER 



PLATE V. 







ERGOT IX HAY 



PL-ATE Vr 




Marx.from nature. 



The Orrul! Co.Litha. Chicago. 



ergotism:. 



POISONS AND POISONING. 



By the late V. T. ATKINSON, V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, Wisconsin State University, Ex-State Veterinarian, 

Wisconsin, etc. 



To clearly define the meaning of the word poison would be somewhat 
difficult. Even in law the word has never been defined, and when a 
definition is attempted we are apt to include either too much or too 
little. The following* is perhaps as clear a definition as it is possible to 
give : " A poison is a substance having an inherent deleterious prop- 
erty rendering it capable of destroying life by whatever avenue it 
finds access to the system, or it is a substance which, when introduced 
into the system or applied externally, injures health or destroys life 
irrespective of mechanical means or thermal changes." The common 
conception of a poison is any substance which will destroy life, in small 
quantity, excepting such as act by purely mechanical means, as, for 
example, powdered glass. 

THE ACTION OF POISONS. 

This may be either local, and exerted directly on the tissues with 
which they come in contact, or remote, acting through the circulation 
or nervous system ; or both local and remote action may be exerted by 
the same drug. Poisons which act locally generally either destroy by 
corrosion the tissues with which they come in contact, or by inhalation 
set up acute inflammation. When any corrosive agent is taken into the 
stomach in poisonous quantities a group of symptoms is developed 
which is common to all. The tissues with which the agent comes in 
contact are destroyed, sloughing andacute inflammation of thesurround- 
nig structures take place; intense pain in theabdomen and death ensue. 
In a like manner, but with less rapidity, the same result is reached 
if the agent used be not of a sufficiently corrosive nature to destroy 
the tissues, but sufficiently irritating to set up acute inflammation of 
the mucous membrane of the digestive tract. Of the poisons exert- 
ing a remote influence, the action is quite different, little or no local 
effect being produced upon the digestive organs. The poisons, when 
absorbed and transmitted through the agency of the circulation, exert 

G3 



64 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

their baneful influence, and though some of thcin act with extreme 
rapidity no effect can be produced until the agent has been absorbed. 
The poisonous effect of any substance is modified by the quantity used ; 
by its chemical combinations; by the part of the animal structure with 
which it comes in contact; and also by the physical condition of the sub- 
ject. As an illustration, opium may be given with safety in much larger 
doses to an animal suffering from acute pain than to one free from pain, 
and to an adult animal with greater safety than to a young one. The 
rapidity with which the poison is absorbed, owing to the part of the 
body with which it is brought in contact, is also an important factor. 
So marked is this quality that some agents which have the power of 
destroying life with almost absolute certainty when introduced beneath 
the skin, may be taken into the stomach without causing even notice- 
able inconvenience, as curara, the arrow poison, or the venomous secre- 
tion of the snake fang. Other agents in chemical combination may tend 
to intensify, lessen, or wholly neutralize the poisonous effect. For 
example, arsenic in itself has well-marked poisonous properties, but 
when brought in contact with dialyzed iron it forms an insoluble com- 
pound and becomes innocuous. Idiosyncracies are not so noticeable in 
cattle practice as in practice among human beings, but the uncertainty 
with which some drugs exert their influence would lead us to believe 
that well-marked differences in susceptibility exist. Even in some cases 
a tolerance for poison is engendered so that in a herd of animals equally 
exposed injurious or fatal effects do not appear with uniformity. For 
example, among cattle that are compelled to drink water holding in 
solution a salt of lead, the effects of the poisoning will be found vary- 
ing all the way from fatality to imperceptibility. 

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF POISONING. 

So widely varied are the symptoms produced by different poisonous 
agents that it is almost impossible to lay down even a general rule of 
symptoms which may be applied to all cases. Ordinarily, poisoning is 
not suspected until after the death of the affected animal. To estab- 
lish the presence or absence of poison in the system becomes necessary 
only with a view to arresting its effect on other animals that may have 
been similarly exposed, or to promote the ends of justice in criminal 
jurisprudence. The symptoms shown before death are likely to give 
reason to suspect either intestinal irritation, with manifestation similar 
to those of colic; or disordered brain function with the characteristic 
indications of vertigo, coma, paralysis, dilatation, or contraction of the 
pupil, etc. The animal secretions and excretions may be perverted, 
augmented, or suppressed. Chemical analysis and philosophical expe- 
riments only can determine with absolute certainty the presence of 
many of the poisons. On the other hand, diagnosis may be reached 
with reasonable certainty where the previous history of the case is 
known, as well as the surroundings and the poisonous agents to which 
the animal would be likely to have access, 



POISONS AND POISONING. 65 

GENERAL TREATMENT. 

The treatment of animals suffering from poison must vary according 
to the nature of the toxic agent. There are a few general plans of 
action, however, which should be followed as far as possible. If a 
stomach-pump can be procured no time should be lost in emptying the 
stomach of its contents and carefully washing that organ by either 
injecting pure water or a solution of the proper antidote. If the stomach 
can not be emptied, the antidote should be administered which will 
counteract or neutralize the particular x>oison from which the animal is 
suffering, such as powdered chalk to neutralize acid poison. If the 
poison has been taken in solid form and there is a probability that part 
of it is still undissolved its further destructive action may be arrested 
by the administration of mucilaginous drinks, as infusions of flaxseed, 
white of eggs, acacia (gum arabic), etc. Where the poison is known to 
be one that is not likely to exert its influence on the stomach directly 
but remotely, every effort should be made to neutralize any part of it 
that may remain unabsorbed, and to as far as possible fortify the sys- 
tem against its action, as by the use of atropia in opium-poisoning, or 
the placing of the patient under the influence of chloroform or ether 
when poisoned by strychnine. A poisonous agent may be so gradually 
introduced into the system as to slowly develop the power of resistance 
against its action. In other cases, where the poison is introduced slowly, 
the poisonous action becomes cumulative, and although there is no 
increase in the quantity taken violent symptoms are suddenly developed, 
as if the whole amount, the consumption of which may have extended 
over a considerable period, had been given in one dose. Other agents, 
poisonous in their nature, tend to deteriorate some of the important 
organs and interfering with their natural functions are productive of con- 
ditions of ill-health which, although not necessarily fatal, are important. 
Such a class might properly be called chronic poisons. Poisons of them- 
selves dangerous when administered in large doses are used medicinally 
for curative purposes, and a very large percentage of the pharmaceutical 
preparations used in the practice of medicine if given in excessive quan- 
tities might produce serious results. In the administration of medicines, 
therefore, care should be exercised not only that the animal is not 
poisoned by the administration of an excessive dose, but that injury is 
not done by continued treatment with medicines the administration of 
which is not called for. 

ARSENIC POISONING. 

Of the common irritant and corrosive poisons, arsenic, especially one 
of its compounds (Paris green or arsenite of copper), is likely to be the 
most dangerous to our class of patients. The common practice of using 
Paris green as an insecticide for the destruction of potato beetle and 
other vegetable parasites has had the effect of introducing it into 
24697 — -5 



66 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

almost all of our farming establishments. White arsenic is also a prin- 
cipal ingredient in many of the popular sheep dipping preparations, 
and poisoning from this source occasionally takes place, when, after 
dipping, the flock are allowed to run in a yard in which there is loose 
fodder. The drippings from the wool of the sheep falling on the fod- 
der render it poisonous, and dangerous to animal life if eaten. Famil- 
iarity with its use has in many instances tended to breed contempt for 
its potency as a poison. Its action is the same as that of all the solu- 
ble chemical compounds of arsenic; it acts as a powerful irritant to 
the stomach and intestines, setting up acute inflammation of any part 
of the alimentary tract with which it comes in contact. 

The symptoms first appear as those of colic; the animal is restless, 
stamping with the feet, lying down and getting up. There is tender- 
ness on pressure over the abdomen. The acute symptoms increase; in 
a few hours violent diarrhea is developed ; in many cases blood and 
shreds of detached mucous membrane are mixed with the evacuations. 
There is irregular and feeble pulse and perspiration, and death is likely 
to supervene between the eighteenth hour and the third day. If the 
latter period is past there is a reasonable hope of recovery. 

Treatment consists in the use of the stomach-pump. After the stom- 
ach is completely emptied there may be a liberal administration of 
demulcents, such as flaxseed tea, boiled starch, acacia, etc. The 
freshly precipitated hydrate or dialyzed iron should be given. The 
amount of the dose must be regulated by the urgency of the symptoms 
and the amount of poison the animal has probably taken. The safest 
plan is to give small doses at frequent intervals. The effect of prepa- 
tions of iron is to entangle the poison and convert it into an insoluble 
arsenite of iron. The hydrate may be given in ounce doses, repeated 
every hour until relief is obtained, or until four or five doses have been 
given. 

LEAD POISONING. 

The salts of lead, particularly sugar of lead (acetate) are irritant 
poisons, but not of great activity. Death may result from their con- 
tinued use, but recovery is probable, unless they are taken in very 
large quantities. Having a somewhat salty taste, animals are likely to 
lick old paint pots. Lead poisoning may occur from accidentally tak- 
ing solutions of the sugar of lead or by means of water drawn from 
lead pipes. 

Symptoms are generally dullness; lying down with the head turned 
toward the flank; rumbling in the abdomen, loss of control of the limbs 
when walking, twitching, champing of the jaws, moving in a circle, con- 
vulsions, delirium, violent bellowing, followed by stupor and death. 
The symptoms generally extend over considerable time. 

The treatment should first be directed toward removing the cause. 
A large dose of purgative medicine should be given and the brain symp- 
toms be relieved by giving bromide of potassium in half-ounce doses 



POISONS AND POISONING. 67 

every four or five hours, and the application of cold water to the head. 
Dilute sulphuric acid in half-ounce doses should be given with the pur- 
gative medicine. In this case sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) is 
the best purgative, and it may be given in doses of from 1 to 2 pounds 
dissolved in warm water. After the acute symptoms have abated, 
iodide of potassium may be given in doses of 2 drams each, three times 
a day for a week. 

Chronic lead poisoning occasionally occurs in districts where lead 
mining is the principal industry. The waste products of the mine 
thrown into streams contaminate the water supply so that the mineral 
is taken into the system gradually, and a very small per cent of any of 
the salts taken into the system in this way is pernicious. Water which 
contains any salt of lead to the extent of more than one- tenth of a grain 
to the gallon is unfit to drink. It may be conveniently tested by plac- 
ing it in a white porcelain dish and adding a few drops of sulphur eted 
hydrogen, when if the lead be present the color of the dish will be dark- 
ened. Such water when used continually is likely to produce colic 
from the resulting intestinal irritation and in aggravated cases paralysis 
more or less severe is likely to be developed. A blue line on the mar- 
gin of the gums, the last symptom, is regarded as diagnostic, and its 
presence as conclusive evidence of the nature of the disorder. The free 
use of purgatives is indicated with iodide of potassium. No treatment 
is likely to be of avail until the cause is removed. 

COPPER POISONS. 

The soluble salts of copper, though used as a tonic in the medicinal 
treatment of cattle, are poisonous when taken in large quantities. Like 
lead and arsenic they have an irritant effect upon the mucous mem- 
brane with which they come in contact in a concentrated form. Cattle 
are not very likely to be poisoned from this cause unless through care- 
lessness. The salts of copper — the most common of which is the sul- 
phate of copper, commonly called blue vitriol — are occasionally used 
for disinfecting and cleansing stables, where they might inadvertently 
be mixed with the food. In animals having the power to vomit it acts 
as an emetic and tends to work its own cure. Cattle, however, al- 
though ruminants and having power to return parts of the food to the 
mouth for remastication, are unable to empty the stomach in this way, 
so that when large quantities have been taken the use of the stomach- 
pump is at once indicated. This should be followed by a liberal supply 
of demulcents, linseed infusion, boiled starch, whites of eggs, etc. 
The general symptoms produced are those of intestinal irritation, short 
breathing, stamping, and tender abdomen. 

ZINC POISONS. 

Several of the soluble salts of zinc are irritant poisons. In animals 
which have power to vomit they are emetic in their action. In others, 



68 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

when retained in the stomach, they set up more or less irritation of the 
mucous membrane and abdominal pain, producing symptoms already 
described in the action of other poisons which produce the same result. 
The treatment would consist of emptying the stomach and the use of 
demulcents. 

i PHOSPHORUS POISONS. 

Only one of the salts of phosphorus in common use — the ordinary 
yellow — is poisonous. Phosphorus in this form is used for the destruc- 
tion of rats and mice and other vermin, and is largely used in the 
manufacture of matches. In the stomach it produces a certain amount 
of disturbance ; vertigo and diarrhea are the usual symptoms. If taken 
in large quantities, the excreta are occasionally noticed to be luminous 
when examined in the dark. The irritant symptoms generally subside 
in a few days and the animal appears to recover its usual health. In a 
short time depression and loss of appetite are again noticed ; the visible 
mucous membranes are yellow from reabsorption of bile; the function 
of the liver is imperfectly performed or suspended ; fatty degeneration 
of the structures occur; the feces are light colored ; fever of a semi- 
typhoid nature is present, and death usually takes place in ten days or 
two weeks from the administration of the poison. Oil of turpentine is 
a favorite remedy, and, though the best, is unsatisfactory. Eecoveries 
are not common. 

ACID POISONS. 

The mineral acids, nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, etc., when used in 
a concentrated form, destroy the animal tissues with which they come 
in contact, and in this respect differ from the poisons previously 
described. The irritant effect of those already mentioned might be the 
result of the use of these acids in a dilute form, but when concentrated 
erosion takes place. When taken into the stomach the mucous mem- 
brane of the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, and stomach is apt to be 
completely destroyed. If taken in large quantities death is likely to 
result so speedily that nothing can be done to relieve the patient, and 
even if time is allowed and the action of the acid can be arrested it can 
not be done until considerable irreparable damage has been done. The 
mucous membrane with which it has come in contact in the oesophagus 
is destroyed by the corrosive action and carried away, leaving the 
muscular tissues exposed. The raw surface heals irregularly, the cica- 
trice contracting causes stricture, and the animal is likely to die of 
starvation. In the stomach even greater damage is likely to be done. 
The peristaltic action of the oesophagus having carried the irritant 
along quickly, here it remains quiet in contact with one surface, de- 
stroying it. It is likely to perforate the organ, and coming in contact 
with the abdominal lining or other organ of digestion soon sets up a 



POISONS AND POISONING. 69 

condition that is beyond repair. In a less concentrated form, when the 
acid is not sufficiently strong- to be corrosive, it exerts an irritant effect. 
In this form, however, it is not likely to do much harm unless taken in 
considerable quantity. When it is, the mucous membrane of the 
stomach and intestines becomes inflamed; pain and diarrhea are likely 
to result. Any of the alkalies may be used as an antidote. Most con- 
venient of these are chalk, whiting, baking soda, etc. 

VEGETABLE ACIDS. 

Oxalic acid in particular is corrosive in its action when taken in con- 
centrated solution, losing its corrosive effect and becoming irritant 
when more dilute. It also exerts a specific effect on the heart, fre- 
quently causing death from syncope. Taken in the form either of the 
crystals or solution it is likely to cause death in a very short time. 
Failure of heart action and attendant small pulse, weakness, stagger- 
ing, and convulsions are the more noticeable symptons. Antacids as 
chalk, whiting, etc., are indicated. The stomach should be emptied as 
quickly as possible so as to get rid of all trace of the poison which may 
not have been neutralized by the alkali. 

MERCURIAL POISONS. 

Corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury) is perhaps the most ter- 
rible of corrosive poisons. It proves fatal in very small doses. To all 
animals shortly after it is taken it produces intense pain in the ab- 
domen from destruction of the tissues with which it is brought in con- 
tact. If it does not prove fatal from this action, being absorbed, it 
exerts a powerful influence on the liver and salivary glands, causing 
diarrhea and discharge of saliva from the mouth. As an antidote the 
white of egg has the power of completely neutralizing its poisonous 
effect, provided it can be administered before the poison has had time 
to exert its deadly influence. In using this remedy the white should 
be separated from the yolk, mixed with water, and given in large quan- 
tities; the stomach should be emptied by means of a stomach pump 
after the antidote has been given. 

Chloride of mercury (calomel) is medicinally used. It is less power- 
ful in its corrosive effect, but produces the same general symptoms 
when given in large doses. 

ALKALINE POISONS. 

The carbonates and sulphides of potash and soda and the alkalies 
themselves in concentrated form cause symptoms of intestinal irrita- 
tion similar to those produced by mineral acids, though chemically 
incompatible with the acids, their caustic irritant effects depending on 
their degree of concentration. "When they reach the stomach the 
symptoms are nearly as well marked as in the case of the acid. The 



70 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

irritation is even more noticeable and purgation is likely to be a more 
prominent symptom. The treatment will consist as in the case of the 
acid, of unloading the stomach as soon as practicable. If this can not 
be done the poisonous effects of the alkali may be neutralized by the 
administration of dilute acids. The administration of such an antidote 
and its action must be carefully watched during administration. In 
the chemical change which takes place when the acid and alkali are 
combined, carbonic acid gas is liberated, which may be to an extent 
sufficient to cause considerable distention of the abdomen, even to 
asphyxia from pressure forward on the diaphragm. Should this dan- 
ger present itself it may be averted by opening the left flank, permit- 
ting the gas to escape. (See Tympanitis or Bloating, p. 29.) 

COAL-OIL, POISONING. 

Coal oil is sometimes administered empirically as a treatment for 
intestinal parasites. If given in large doses it produces poisonous 
effects, which are likely to be manifest some time after the administra- 
tion. It acts as an irritant to the digestive tract, causing dribbling 
of ropy saliva from the mouth, catharsis, and shreds of mucus in the 
fecal matter, tenesmus and loss of appetite, with increased tempera- 
ture and cold extremities. Yisible mucous membranes are injected, 
pupils of the eyes contracted, watery discharge from the eyes and 
nostrils. Eemotely it exerts a depressing influence on the functions of 
the brain and slight coma and occasionally convulsions from which the 
animal is easily aroused. The kidneys also suffer. The urine is dark 
colored and has the characteristic odor of coal oil. Death may result 
from gastroenteritis or convulsions. The patient's strength should be 
fostered by the frequent administration of mild stimulants, of which 
aromatic spirits of ammonia is perhaps the best. The animal should 
be encouraged to eat soft food and given mucilaginous drinks, 

CARBOLIC-ACID POISONING. 

Although one of the most valuable antiseptic remedies, carbolic acid 
in a concentrated form, when taken internally or used over a large sur- 
face externally, is likely to produce poisonous effects. It causes whiten- 
ing, shrinking, and numbness of the structures with which it comes in 
contact, and besides its irritant effect exerts a powerful influence on the 
nervous system. Being readily absorbed it produces its effect whether 
swallowed, injected into the rectum, inhaled, or applied to wounds or 
even to a large tract of unbroken skin. Used extensively as a dressing 
it may produce nausea, dizziness, and black or green colored urine. 
The last symptom is nearly always noticeable where the poisonous effect 
is produced. In more concentrated form, or used in larger quantities, 
convulsions followed by fatal coma are likely to take place. Even in 
smaller quantities, dullness, trembling, and disinclination for food often 
continues for several days. In a tolerably concentrated solution it 



POISONS AND POISONING. 71 

coagulates albumen aud acts as an astringent. As an antidote inter- 
nally, lime-water sweetened with sugar should be given in large quan- 
tities or a solution of sulphate of soda. When the poisoning occurs 
through too extensive applications to wounds or the skin, as in treat- 
ment of mange, cold water should be freely applied so as to wash off 
any of the acid that may still remain unabsorbed. As a surgical dressing 
a 3 per cent solution is strong enough for ordinary purposes. Water 
will not hold more than 5 per cent in permanent solution. No prepara- 
tion stronger than the saturated solution should be used medicinally 
under any circumstances. 

VEGETABLE POISONS. 

These may be divided into two classes — those that are likely to be 
administered to the animal as medicine or such as may be taken in the 
food, either in the shape of poisonous plants or plant disease affecting 
the natural herbage of the pasture or meadow from which the animal 
obtains its food supply. 

OPIUM POISONING. 

Opium and its alkaloid, morphia, are so commonly used in the prac- 
tice of medicine that the poisonous result of an overdose is not uncom- 
mon in ordinary practice. The common preparations are gum opium, 
the inspissated juice of the poppy, powdered opium made from the gum, 
tincture of opium, commonly called laudanum, and the alkaloid or active 
principle, morphia. Laudanum has about one-eighth the strength of 
the gum or powder. Morphia is present in good opium to the extent of 
about 10 per cent. In medicinal quantities it is a most useful agent in 
allaying pain. It has an effect common to all narcotics of first produc- 
ing a stimulating effect, which is soon followed by drowsiness, a dispo- 
sition to sleep or complete ansesthesia, depending on the quantity of 
the drug used. In poisonous doses a state of exhilaration is apt to be 
well marked at first. A second stage rapidly supervenes, in which the 
symptoms are those of congestion of the brain. It has the effect of pre- 
venting perfect aeration of the blood. The visible membranes have a 
bluish tint (cyanotic). The breathing is slow, labored, and later ster- 
torous; the pupils of the eyes are very much contracted; the skin dry 
and warm. The patient may be aroused by great noise or the infliction 
of sharp pain, when the breathing becomes more natural. A relapse 
into the comatose condition soon takes j)lace when the excitement is 
removed. Later, there is perfect coma and the patient can no longer 
be aroused from the insensible condition. The contraction of the pupil 
becomes more marked, the breathing intermittent and slower, there is 
perspiration, the pulse more feeble and rapid, till death takes place. 

Treatment, — The stomach should be emptied by means of a stomach 
pump, if possible, and the patient kept moving, even though what would 



72 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

otherwise be cruelty is necessarily inflicted. When other means fail 
to excite, sharp sounds produced close to tlie ear will sometimes serve 
to arouse. Stimulants should be given internally, such as aromatic 
spirits of ammonia, whisky, brandy, and strong infusions of coffee. 

STRYCHNINE POISONING. 

Nearly all the alkaloids of the genus Strychnos are poisonous, more 
particularly strychnine. Strychnine is a very concentrated poison and 
produces its effect very quickly, usually only a few minutes being nec- 
essary. The first noticeable symptom is a well-marked convulsion; the 
head is jerked back, the back arched and leg extended, the eyes drawn. 
The spasm continues for only a few minutes, when it relaxes and 
returns again in a short time. The return is hastened by excitement 
and in a short time again disappears, continuing to disappear and 
reappear until death results. As the poisonous effect advances the 
intervals between the spasms become shorter and less marked and the 
spasms more severe until the animal dies in violent struggles. 

Treatment. — Emptying the stomach is good treatment if it can be 
done before the poison is absorbed. After the spasms have been 
noticed, however, the operation would likely excite the animal and 
hasten the fatal termination. The best method is to put the patient 
under the influence of chloroform or ether and keep it there continu- 
ously until the effect of the poison has passed off. 

ACONITE POISONING. 

In recent years tincture of aconite has for some unknown reason be- 
come a popular stable remedy. In the hands of some breeders it seems 
to be used as a panacea for all the ills flesh is heir to. If an animal is 
ailing aconite is given whether indicated or not. Fortunately the dose 
used is generally small, and for this reason the damage done much less 
than probably otherwise would be. Aconite is one of the most deadly 
poisons known. It produces paralysis of motion and sensation, de- 
presses the heart's action and causes death by syncope. In large doses 
it causes profuse salivation, champing of the jaws and attempts at swal- 
lowing. If not sufficient to cause death there is impaired appetite with 
more or less nausea for some time after. In poisonous doses it causes 
the animal to tremble violently, lose power to support itself, and slight 
convulsions with perspiration. The pulse is depressed, irregular, and 
afterwards intermittent. If possible, the stomach should be emptied 
by means of the stomach pump and the animal treated with finely pow- 
dered animal charcoal in the hope of absorbing the poison. The only 
chemical antidote of any value is tannic acid, which forms an insoluble 
compound with the aconitine. The depressing effect on the heart 
should be counteracted by the use of ammonia, digitalis," and other dif- 
fusible stimulants, which have a physiological effect opposite to aconite. 



POISONS AND POISONING. 73 



DIETETIC POISONS. 



A small but important group of poisons may be classed under this 
head. The poisonous principle is a plant product and likely to find its 
way into the stomach in the food which the animal consumes. In some 
cases it is poison naturally belonging to the plant; in other cases the 
poisonous principle is developed in what would otherwise be harmless 
plants as a plant disease. 

LOCO WEED POISONING. 

The loco weed (Astragalus mollissimus) found in the natural pastures 
of some of our Western States and Territories produces a remarkable 
poisonous effect. The plant grows on high, gravelly or sandy soil. It 
has a rather attractive appearance, and retains its soft, pale green 
color all winter. A mass of leaves 4 to 10 inches high grow from the 
very short stem. The leaves are pinnate, similar in form to those of a 
locust tree, with ten pairs of leaflets and an odd terminal one. The 
flower scape grows from the center of the plant. The flowers, shaped 
like pea blossoms, appear in June or July, are yellow tinted with violet. 
The seeds are contained in a pod about half an inch long. Fortunately 
a stalk-boring larva has attacked the plant and seems to be doing much 
toward eradicating it. Horses and cattle seem to acquire a taste for 
it, although it is not a plant that would be considered as a food or that 
would be eaten with a relish the first time. In the early spring, when 
herbage is scarce, its green appearance may attract the animal, and 
the habit of eating it be thus acquired. Its effect is not noticeable till 
a considerable quantity has been eaten. It seems to exert its influ- 
ence on the nervous system. The gait is slow and measured, the step 
high, the eyes glassy and staring, the vision defective. Sudden excite- 
ment will frequently produce convulsions, which, if the disease is well 
advanced, have a temporarily prostrating effect upon the animal. 
Although loco poisoning is a nervous affection, emaciation is one of the 
most noticeable symptoms. The taste for the weed becomes stronger, 
the victim preferring it to other food until nothing else is eaten. "When 
it is taken in large quantities delirium is produced and the animal 
becomes vicious. If the cause be removed before too much injury is 
done, recovery is likely to take place. Medicinal treatment seems to 
be of little avail. Comfortable stabling, quiet, and a liberal supply of 
wholesome food tend to counteract the poisonous effect of the plant and 
build up the depleted forces. 

ERGOTISM. 
[Plates v, vi.] 

The poisonous effects of ergot have so far appeared only in the winter 
and spring of the year and among cattle. It is developed among grasses 
grown on rich soil in hot, damp seasons. Eye seems more liable to ergot 
than any of our other crops. Of the grasses which enter into the com- 



74 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

position of bay, blue grass is tbe most likely to become affected. On tbe 
plant tbe fungus manifests itself on tbe seeds, where it is easily recog- 
nized when the hay is examined in the mow. Tbe ergotized seeds are 
several times larger than the natural ; hard, black, and generally curved 
in shape. The effect of the protracted use of ergot in the food is pretty 
well understood to be that of lowering the powers of circulation, which, 
together with the action of gravitation, is sufficient to completely arrest 
it in dependent parts of the body, such as are remote from the heart, as 
the tail and feet, particularly the hind feet. Cattle seem to be more 
susceptible than other animals to the influence of ergot, possibly on 
account of the slowness of the heart's action. When tbe effect of tbe 
poison has become sufficient to entirely arrest tbe circulation in any 
part tbe structures soon die. The disorder manifests itself as lameness 
in one or more limbs; swelling about the ankle which may result in only 
a small slough, but it is more bkely to circumscribe tbe limb at any 
point below the knee or hock by an indented ring, below which the tis- 
sues become dead. The indentation soon changes to a crack, which, 
like it, extends completely round tbe limb, forming tbe line of separa- 
tion between the dead and bving structures. The crack deepens till the 
parts below drop off without loss of blood, and frequently with very 
little pus. This condition is known as dry gangrene, and is the poison- 
ous effect of ergot. 

Eegarding the treatment, change of food and local antiseptics are 
of course indicated. The former may be useful as a preventive, but 
when the symptoms have appeared the animal is necessarily so com- 
pletely saturated that recovery is bkely to be tedious. It has been 
observed by some writers that the feeding of corn with ergotized food 
neutralizes the poisonous effect. 

LOCAL POISONING. 

Local poison may occur from tbe bites or stings of insects or from 
contact with poisonous plants in exposed parts of the body, such as 
poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron), when brought in contact with the 
udder or teats, or from the external accidental appbcation of caustic 
acid or alkaline solutions. In the case of the caustic its effect should 
be neutralized by the application of the proper antidote and the result- 
ing wound treated as a burn or frost-bite. Tbe stings of bees or wasps, 
and the bites of other poisonous insects, should be treated by tbe 
application of turpentine gently appbed. 

SNAKE BITES. 

The poison contained in the fangs of certain venomous reptiles, 
particularly some of the snakes, which is injected into or under the 
skin of an animal bitten by the reptile is a very powerful agent. It 
is bkely to produce a serious local irritation, and in the case of the 
more poisonous snakes serious constitutional disturbances, even to 



POISONS AND POISONING. 75 

causing- death, which it may do in either of two ways. First, when 
very strong,, by exerting a narcotic influence similar to that of some of 
the powerful poisons, destroying nervous function, with the symptoms 
of extreme depression, feeble, flickering or intermittent pulse, cold ex- 
tremities, dilated pupils, insensibility, collapse, and death. Second, 
when less powerful, by diffused inflammation of the areolar tissue, 
numerous abscesses, gangrene, and extensive sloughing. Immediately 
after the bite alarming symptoms of an asthenic character and local 
swelling rapidly takes place ; there is irritation from the first. The extent 
of the swelling and subsequent gangrene will depend on the potency 
or amount of the poison introduced. Unless in very large quantities, 
death ensues so rapidly that the swelling process is not completed. 
There are many snakes of which the bites are harmless. Post-mortem 
examination reveals a dark alkaline condition of the blood, intense 
congestion of the lungs and spleen, and other conditions indicative 
of death of the blood (necramiia). The viscera emit a peculiar sickly 
odor. 

The treatment may be divided into local and general. Locally every 
effort should be made to prevent absorption of the poison. If discov- 
ered at once the bitten part had better be excised. If that is imprac- 
ticable and a ligature can be applied as in the case of a bite to one of 
the limbs, no time should be lost in applying it above the injury. It 
should be made sufficiently tight to as far as possible arrest circulation 
in the bitten part. The poison should be extracted by cupping. If 
this is not practicable, or when it has been performed, the wound 
should be seared with a red-hot iron to destroy as far as possible any 
of the poison that may remain unabsorbed. The depressing effect of 
the poison on the general system should be counteracted by liberal 
drenching with stimulants, wine, brandy, whisky, etc. In the human 
being preparations of arsenic, bromine, bichloride of mercury, and 
iodide of potassium in frequently-repeated doses are indicated. In 
animal practice the alcoholic stimulants and local treatment above 
described are likely to meet with best success. In the emergency which 
arises when such an accident occurs the means at hand must be used to 
the best advantage. First the application of a tight ligature can nearly 
always be made; then opening the wound up to its bottom with a pen- 
knife and encouraging free flow of blood will be likely to wash out at 
least part of the poison, if done promptly. Cupping can not be practiced 
among cattle with the same facility as it can in the human being, owing 
to the covering of hair. This obstacle may be overcome by smearing 
the hair full of tar or balsam on the surface to which the cupping glass 
is to be applied. The operation may be easily performed, using a jar or 
bottle with a good-sized neck, but not so large as to prevent its having a 
firm seat on the skin around the wound. A piece of cloth dipped in oil 
and lighted is dropped into the bottle, the neck of which is quickly 
applied to the wound. The flame of the burning cloth consumes the 



76 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

oxygen of the air and creates a partial vacuum into which the blood 
from the wound should flow freely. The injection hypodermicaUy of a 
20 per cent solution of permanganate of potash directly into the wounded 
tissues aids in neutralizing the effect of the concentrated poison in the 
immediate vicinity. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 



By W. H. HARBAUGH, V. S., Richmond, Va. 



In order to comprehend what is meant by disease, it is essential that 
one should understand the structure and arrangement of the organs 
subject to disease, as well as know something of the phenomena or 
functions of the organs in a state of health, because it must be remem- 
bered that disease is but a perversion of health. The blood and circu- 
latory apparatus are not only of the greatest importance in the diseases 
under this particular head, but they are more or less concerned whenever 
disease exists. To convey an idea of their importance it may be stated 
that all vitality and all nutrition depend on the blood. In view of 
these facts it must be admitted that nothing less than a liberal descrip- 
tion of these organs and their functions will suffice in a work of this 
kind (the principal object of which is instruction), and therefore we 
will at once proceed to an anatomical and physiological consideration 
of them. 

The heart, blood-vessels, and lymphatics are usually described as 
the circulatory apparatus. 

The heart is located in the thoracic cavity (chest). It is conical in 
form, with the base or large part uppermost, while the apex or point 
rests just above the sternum (breastbone). It is suspended from the 
vertebral column (backbone) by the large blood-vessels which enter 
and leave the heart. It is situated between the right and left lung 
the apex inclining to the left, and owing to this circumstance the 
heartbeats are best felt on the left side of the chest behind the elbow. 
The heart is composed principally of muscular tissue. It may be con- 
sidered as a hollow muscle, containing four compartments, two on each 
side. The compartments of each side are placed one above the other. 
For convenience, the compartments are called right and left, but in 
reality those called right are almost in front of those called the left. 
The upper compartments are called auricles and the lower ones are called 
ventricles. The right auricle and ventricle are completely separated 
from the left auricle and ventricle by a thick septum or wall, so that 
there is no communication between the right and left sides of the heart. 
Externally the heart appears to be single, but it is really a double organ. 

77 



78 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

The communication between the auricle and. ventricle of either side is 
called the auriculo-ventricular opening, and both orifices are regulated 
by valves. The compartments of the heart are manifest on its outer 
surface by grooves or furrows. There is a transverse groove which 
marks the division between the auricular and ventricular parts. This 
groove also marks the location of the auriculo-ventricular openings on 
the inside. The upper portion of the heart is constricted in the middle 
of its superior face; the section on either side of the constriction repre- 
sents one of the auricles. Into the right section are inserted the pos- 
terior vena cava, the anterior vena cava, the vena azygos, and coronary 
vein. Into the left section are inserted the pulmonary veins, usually 
four in number. The ventricular portion includes all that is below the 
transverse groove; it is much the greater portion of the organ and gives 
to it the shape of a cone or pyramid. On either face is seen a groove 
which marks the division between the right and left ventricle. In 
cattle an accessory groove runs down behind the left ventricle. All 
the grooves are occupied by blood-vessels and fatty tissue. The com- 
mon aorta and the pulmonary artery leave the upper portion of the 
ventricular mass on the left of the anterior part. 

The cavities of the heart are designated as the right and left, and 
there is no communication between the right and left cavities after the 
birth of the young animal. During the life of the fetus in the womb 
there is an opening in the wall between the right and left auricles 
called the foramen ovale, but at birth this is closed, and there remains 
only a depression in the wall to mark the place where it existed. It 
occasionally happens that the foramen ovale remains open after birth, 
and this exception will be referred to hereafter under the head of 
Cyanosis. In the cavities are to be seen the orifices of the vessels 
(through which the blood enters and leaves the heart), the names of 
which have been given. 

At the bottom of each auricle is the auriculo-ventricular opening; 
each opening is provided with a valve to close it when the heart con- 
tracts to force the blood into the arteries. In the interval between the 
contractions these valves hang down into the ventricles. Little ten- 
dinous cords stretching from the free edges of the valves to the walls 
of the ventricles prevent the blood from forcing the valves too far up 
into the auricles during contraction of the heart, which prevents the 
return of blood into the auricles. 

The opening of the common aorta and pulmonary artery and the 
auriculo-ventricular openings are surrounded by rings of fibrous tissue 
which form the frame on which the muscular tissue of the heart rests. 
In cattle there are found two small bones in the fibrous tissue of the 
ring of the common aorta. The fibrous tissue completely surrounds 
the openings of the aorta and pulmonary artery, but the rings around 
the auriculo-ventricular openings are incomplete. 

The muscular tissue of the heart belongs to that class known as in- 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 79 

voluntary, because its action — contraction — is not controlled by the 
will; but it is well to remark that it is a variety of striated or striped 
muscle, and striped muscle, with but few exceptions, of which this is 
one, belongs to the class known as voluntary muscle. 

The nutrition of the heart is derived from the blood distributed to its 
muscular tissue by the coronary arteries (and their branches), which 
are the only vessels given off by the common aorta before it divides 
into the posterior and anterior aortas. The branches of the coronary 
arteries are the vessels which occupy the furrows on the external sur- 
face of the heart. The venous blood from the structure of the heart is 
emptied into the right auricle by the coronary vein. The lymphatics 
of the heart accompany the course of the coronary arteries and empty 
into the lymphatic glands near the base of the heart. The nervous 
supply of the heart is from the cardiac plexus, which is derived from 
the pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves. 

The cavities of the heart are lined by a kind of serous membrane 
called the endocardium. It is very thin and closely adherent and forms 
the internal surface. The endocardium may be considered as continued 
into the veins and the arteries, forming their internal lining. In the 
cavities of the right side the endocardium has a reddish tint, which is 
deeper in the ventricle ; in the cavities of the left side the tint is yel- 
lowish. The walls of the ventricles are thicker than those of the auri- 
cles, and the walls of the left ventricle are much thicker than those of 
the right. 

The heart is enveloped by a fibrous sac (or bag) called the pericar- 
dium, which assumes much of the general shape of the outer surface of 
the heart. The internal surface of the pericardium is smooth and 
glistening like the external surface of the heart itself. These smooth 
surfaces are opposed one to the other, and are in fact the serous mem- 
brane of the pericardium; they are kept moist by the serum which 
exudes from their surface to prevent the serious consequence of friction 
to the surface of the heart. In health no appreciable quantity of fluid 
collects in the sac, but in some cases of disease, and in instances of old 
age, serum accumulates within the pericardium to a greater or less 
extent. 

The heart is the principal organ of the circulatory apparatus, and its 
function is to assure the movement of the blood by the regular contrac- 
tion of its walls which force the blood into the vessels called arteries. 
The auricles may be considered as the reservoirs or receivers of the 
blood, and the ventricles as the pumps, therefore the function of the 
heart resembles the action of a force-pump. During the interval be- 
tween contractions, the heart being in momentary repose, the blood 
pours into the auricles from the veins ; the auriculo-ventricular orifices 
being widely open, the ventricles also receive blood; the auricles con- 
tract and the ventricles are filled; contraction of the ventricles follows; 
the auriculo-ventricular valves are forced up by the pressure of the 



80 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

blood and close the auriculo-ventricular openings, and prevent the re- 
turn of blood into the auricles ; the contraction of the ventricles forces 
the blood from the right ventricle into the lungs through the pulmonary- 
artery and its branches, and from the left ventricle into the aorta and 
all parts of the body through the arteries. After the contraction of the 
ventricles the heart is again in momentary repose and being filled with 
blood, while the valves in the aorta and pulmonary artery close to pre- 
vent the return of blood into the ventricles. (See Plate vn.) 

The heart is the most irritable muscle in the body ; it has no rest 
from the time the first few cells are formed .that go to make up the 
organ until its action is stopped by death, except during the repose or 
momentary pause between the beats. 

The average weight of the heart of an ox is said to be from 3£ to 4£ 
pounds, but, of course, the weight must be very variable in different 
animals owing to the many breeds and sizes of cattle. 

The vessels that convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the 
body are called arteries; the vessels which return the blood to the 
heart are called veins. Between the ultimate ramifications of the ar- 
teries and the beginning of the veins there is an intermediate system 
of very minute vessels called capillaries, which connect the arterial 
with the venous system of the circulation. 

ARTERIES. 

The walls of the arteries are possessed of a certain amount of rigid- 
ity sufficient to keep the tubes open when they are empty; this fact 
led the ancients to believe that they contained air and hence their 
name — arteries. The walls of the arteries are composed of three coats 
or tunics. The internal coat may be considered a prolongation of the 
endocardium from the left ventricle. The middle coat is composed of 
yellow elastic tissue and muscular tissue; the amount of each tissue 
varies according to the size of the vessel. The muscular tissue being 
contractile is required in some parts more than in others. In the aorta 
and large arteries near the heart the elastic tissue predominates ; in the 
vessels of intermediate size the elastic and muscular tissues average 
about equal proportions, while in the smallest arteries the muscular 
tissue predominates and even comprises the entire middle coat. The 
external coat is composed of a layer of thin but remarkably strong 
fibrous tissue and a small proportion of elastic tissue. 

A ligature may be tied sufficiently tight around an artery to com- 
pletely rupture the middle and internal coats without severing the ex- 
ternal coat ; and owing to the fact that the union is not complete between 
the middle and external coats, the ruptured coats retract within the 
external one, assisting to a great extent in surgery. The blood leaves 
the left ventricle through a single vessel, the common aorta, which 
divides into the anterior and posterior aortas, which in turn give oft* 
the large ar^ries. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 81 

The arteries divide and subdivide (like the branches of a tree) be- 
come smaller and smaller, and ultimately ramify into every part of the 
body, terminating in a network of very small tubes called capillaries, 
which can only be recognized by the aid of a microscope. The walls 
of the capillaries differ considerably from the walls of the arteries and 
veins, and they also vary according to the size of the capillary tubes; 
they are so thin and peculiar that white corpuscles and the fluid part 
of the blood readily pass through them into adjacent tissue. The capil- 
laries terminate in veins. 

The veins take the blood from the capillaries in all parts of the body. 
They begin in very small tubes which unite to become larger in size 
and less in number as they approach the heart. The veins, like the 
arteries, have three coats, but are thinner, less muscular, and less 
elastic than the arteries, and collapse when empty. 

In its course an artery is usually accompanied by a vein, and in many 
instances by two veins; in the latter case it is placed between them, 
and if but one vein accompanies it, the artery is always the deeper and 
least exposed of the two vessels. Nerves also generally accompany 
the arteries. Muscles in many locations serve to point out the situation 
of arteries, as they often are in contact with them in their course; cer- 
tain arteries are in contact with bones ; and in certain situations they 
he in the connective tissue between the skin aud bone, which is the 
case with some of these vessels about the head and legs; such arteries 
are best for ascertaining the state of the pulse. Arteries deeply seated 
in certain places are in contact with bones, and the knowledge of their 
location enables the surgeon to compress them against the bone for the 
purpose of arresting the flow of blood in a particular vessel in case of 
hemorrhage or during operations. The more important arteries are 
placed deep within the body; but in those cases where they are super- 
ficial, they are generally found where least exposed to injury, as for 
example, on the inner side of the legs. Arteries are less numerous 
than veins, and the total capacity of the arteries is much less than that 
of the veins. A great number of veins are in the tissue immediately 
beneath the skin, and these are not generally accompanied by arteries. 
All the superficial veins, and many of the others, have valves within 
them to prevent the reflux of blood; the faces of the valves are towards 
the heart, and when anything interferes to retard the flow of blood to 
the heart, the valves are closed by the backing of the blood, and effect- 
ually prevent its return. By the same means these valves favor the 
flow of blood to the heart, because of the pressure assured by the con- 
traction of muscles adjacent to the veins. There are no valves in the 
veins of the lungs. 

The blood throughout its course, in the heart, arteries, capillaries, and 
veins, is inclosed within these vessels. There is no opening into the 
course of the blood, except where the large lymphatics empty into the 
venous blood. > u - 

24697 6 



82 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

The circulation is considered as two systems : The pulmonary, the 
lesser, is that from the right heart to the lungs, and back to the left 
heart. The systemic, or greater, is from the left heart to all parts of 
the body, and back to the right heart. To simplify the subject it may 
be said at once that the blood of the body is of two colors — 
bright red, or pure blood, and dark red, or impure blood. All the 
arteries, except the pulmonary artery and its branches, carry bright 
red ; and. all the veins, except the pulmonary veins, carry dark-red blood. 
The impure dark-red blood is collected from the capillary vessels and 
carried to the right auricle by the veins ; it passes through the auriculo- 
ventricular openings into the right ventricle and thence into the pul- 
monary artery, and through its branches to the capillaries of the lungs, 
Avhere the carbonic acid gas and other impurities are given up to the 
air in the air-cells of the lungs (through the thin walls between the 
capillaries and air-cells), and where it also absorbs from the air the 
oxygen gas necessary to sustain life, which changes it to the bright red, 
pure blood. It passes from the capillaries to the branches of the pul- 
monary veins, which convey it to the left auricle of the heart; it then 
passes through the auriculo -ventricular opening into the left ventricle, 
the contraction of which forces it through the common aorta into the 
posterior and anterior aortas, and through all the arteries of the body 
into the capillaries, where it parts with its oxygen and nutritive ele- 
ments, and where it absorbs carbonic acid gas and certain other impuri- 
ties and becomes dark colored. (See theoretical diagram of the circu- 
lation, Plate vn.) 

The muscular tissue in the walls of the arteries, under the stimulus 
of the vasomotor nerves, regulates the caliber of the vessels and the 
amount of blood supplied to the different parts, and, on account of its 
contractibility, it assists in controlling a hemorrhage when an artery is 
cut completely across, by causing the retraction of the severed ends of 
the vessel. 

The flow of blood through the capillaries is very slow, not much more 
than an inch a minute. The power which forces it through them is the 
heart; and many physiologists maintain that the changes in the blood 
which take place in the capillaries favor and compel the blood to flow 
through them, and as a proof they refer to the fact that arteries are 
found empty after death, because the capillaries have sent the blood 
into the veins. On this theory, capillary circulation may be compared 
to oil rising in the wick of a lamp to burn as the demand requires. 

The blood is caused to flow through the veins to the heart by several 
different forces. The contraction of muscles in proximity to veins 
causes a pressure on them which assures an onward movement to the 
heart, since the valves in the veins prevent its backward movement. 
At each inspiration (or taking in a breath, there is a suction-like action 
of the chest, which induces the flow to the right auricle. The heart 
probably exerts a force from behind which assists the flow in the veins. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 83 

ANASTOMOSES. 

The branches of certain arteries in different parts unite again after 
subdividing. This reuniting is called anastomosing, and assures a 
quota of blood to the part if one of the anastomosing arteries should be 
tied in case of hemorrhage, or should be destroyed by accident or oper- 
ation. In such cases the blood is supplied by the collateral vessels of 
the anastomoses, which gradually enlarge, because the increased quan- 
tity of blood they are forced to carry distends their walls, and even- 
tually the part receives all the blood it requires. Were it not for these 
anastomoses, certain parts would be deprived of blood in certain cases 
of accident and disease, and mortification would ensue. 

Anastomoses are effected when two branches, after traversing a cer- 
tain length, reunite to form a vessel larger than either of the branches ; 
others are formed by transverse communications through smaller arter- 
ies between two larger ones running in the same direction ; and they 
may be formed by a combination of both the foregoing methods. Veins 
also form anastomoses, and they are even more numerous than those 
of the arteries. 

BLOOD. 

The various kinds of food, after being digested in the alimentary 
canal, are absorbed and carried into the blood by the lymphatics, and 
by the blood to the places where nutrition is required. The blood 
takes from all parts of the body all that is useless and no longer 
required, and carries it to the different organs where it is eliminated 
from the body. It contains within itself all the elements which nour- 
ish the body. 

The blood may be considered a fluid holding in solution certain inor- 
ganic elements and having certain bodies suspended in it. Authorities 
differ as to the exact amount of each constituent of the blood, but the 
following is a fair estimate: In 1,000 parts there are: water, 790 parts; 
corpuscles, 120 parts; albumen, 60 parts; salts and extractive matters, 
including the elements of fibrin, 30 parts. To facilitate description, 
the blood may be considered as being made up of the corpuscles and 
the liquor sanguinis. The corpuscles are of two kinds, the red and the 
white, the red being the most numerous. The color of the blood is due 
to the coloring matter in the red corpuscles. The red corpuscles are 
the oxygen carriers. Both kinds are very minute bodies, which re- 
quire the aid of the microscope to recognize them. The liquor san- 
guinis is composed principally of water, salts, albumen, and the 
elements of fibrin. The most abundant salts are the chloride and the 
carbonate of soda, with a less quantity of the phosphate and sulphate 
of potassium and lime. The albumen very much resembles the white 
of an egg in its composition. Fatty matters exist in the liquor san- 
guinis in extremely small particles, and also in combination with soda. 



84 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

The extractives are different elements in such small proportions as to 
require special means to extract them. Fibrin does not exist in the 
living blood as fibrin, but the elements are there, ready to form fibrin 
under certain circumstances. The internal lining of the blood-vessels 
appears to prevent the formation of fibrin, but when the blood comes 
in contact with anything foreign to it, fibrin is quickly formed, and 
coagulation (or the clot of blood) is the result, unless certain means 
are used to prevent it. Fibrin is a very important factor in surgery. 
When a wound is made and blood escapes, fibrin is formed, which 
causes the blood to coagulate or clot, and which materially assists in 
arresting hemorrhages. Carbonic acid gas is carried by the liquor san- 
guinis, both in solution and combined with the soda. 

The blood is alkaline, due to the salts it contains. Its specific gravity 
varies from 1.050 to 1.057. The weight of blood in cattle is estimated 
by a good authority to be 1 pound to every 23 pounds of the weight 
of the body. 

The lymphatics, or absorbents, are the vessels which carry the lymph 
and chyle into the blood. Like the veins, they have three coats or 
tunics, but much thinner. They begin as capillaries in all parts of the 
body, and they have valves. Placed along the course of the lymphatic 
vessels are glands, and in some situations these glands are collected 
into groups ; for example, in the groin, etc. These glands are often 
involved in inflammation arising from the absorption of deleterious 
matter. For instance, a sore may be on a finger, and the lymphatic 
capillaries there may absorb a poisonous or irritable matter, which is 
carried by the lymphatic vessels to the collection of lymphatic glands 
in the armpit, and inflammation of the glands results and gives rise to 
the familiar waxing kernel. 

Absorption is the function of the lymphatics. The liquor sanguinis 
passes from the blood capillaries to supply nutrition to the tissues. All 
excess of the liquor sanguinis that is not required is absorbed by the 
lymphatic capillaries and conveyed back to the blood by the lymphatic 
vessels. The lymphatics which proceed from the intestines convey the 
chyle into the blood during digestion. The lymph (fluid carried by 
these vessels) is composed of white corpuscles, albumen, salts, water, 
extractives, and the elements of fibrin. In fact, it is blood without the 
red corpuscles. Chyle consists of the same constituents as lymph, with 
the addition of fatty matters. As a rule, the lymphatic vessels follow 
the course of the veins. All of the absorbent vessels convey their con- 
tents to the thoracic duct and right great lymphatic vein, which empty 
into the anterior vena cava, where the lymph and chyle mix with the 
venous blood, and thus maintain the supply of nutritive elements in 
the blood. 

PULSE. 

As fully explained, the heart pumps the blood throughout the arte- 
rial system. The arteries are always full and overfull, and each con- 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 85 

traction of the ventricle pumps more blood into them, which distends 
their elastic walls and sends a wave along them which gradually be- 
comes less perceptible as it nears the very small arteries, and is lost 
before the capillaries are reached. This wave constitutes the pulse. 
The sensation or impression given to the finger when placed upon the 
artery shows the force exerted by the heart and the condition of the 
circulation. It must be remarked that it is only in the arteries that 
there is a pulse wave. What is called the "jugular pulse" will be no- 
ticed hereafter. The pulse varies much as to frequency ; anger, fear, 
and exercise increase the number of pulsations. It is faster in hot 
weather than in cold ; in the young and old it is faster than in middle 
age ; it is slower in the male than female. Fevers and inflammation in- 
crease the frequency. In cattle the average number of pulsations in a 
minute (in adults) is from 40 to 50. But in cows the pulse is subject to 
variations from different causes. In this regard Prof. Williams says: 

Indeed, tlie pulse of the cow in a state of confinement, in so far as regards tlie num- 
ber of beats, cannot be depended upon in the diagnosis of disease; the states of preg- 
nancy and obesity, the effects of artificial food and of the activity of the lactiferous 
glands, as well as the excitement caused by the act of rumination, generally produce 
such an impression upon the nervous system as to cause the action of the heart to be 
much increased, such increase being entirely consistent with a state of perfect health 
in an animal so circumstanced. 

However, the frequency of the pulse is by no means all the informa- 
tion gained by feeling the pulse. Other conditions of the pulse are: 
Infrequent pulse, which means that the number of pulsations in a given 
time is less than normal. The quick pulse means that the pulse wave 
gives the sensation to the finger quicker than natural, and it must not 
be confounded with the frequent pulse which refers to the number of 
pulsations; thus the number of pulsations may be frequent while each 
individual beat or pulsation may be quick or slow. The pulse is inter- 
mittent when the pulsations do not follow in regular order. For ex- 
ample, the pulse may beat regularly for a number of beats, then a 
longer pause between two beats occurs, then beat again regularly for 
several beats, or in other words, as if a beat was left out at intervals. The 
large pulse and the small pulse refer to the volume of the pulse, which 
may be larger or smaller than usual. A pulse may be strong or feeble 
and at the same time may be either large or small. The strong pulse 
and the feeble pulse refer to the strength or weakness of the pulsation. 
It is called the hard pulse when the vessel feels hard and incompressi- 
ble. The soft pulse is the reverse of the hard one. By dicrotic pulse 
is meant that kind of pulsation which makes each beat seem double, 
and therefore it is generally called the double pulse. 

The venous or "jugular pulse" is the pulsation so frequently observed 
in the jugular vein of cattle. It is particularly noticeable while they 
are ruminating — "chewing the cud." It is not always associated with 
disease, but may be a symptom of some disease of the heart ; in such 
cases the jugular pulse is continuous. 



86 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

The location selected for feeling the pulse in cattle is where the sub- 
maxillary artery winds around the lower jaw bones, just at the lower 
edge of the flat muscle on the side of the cheek. Or if the cow is lying 
down, the metacarpal artery on the back part of the fore fetlock is very 
convenient for the purpose. Any superficial artery, it may be said, will 
give the pulsations, but in order to ascertain the peculiarities it is nec- 
essary to select an artery which may be pressed against a bone. 

TEMPERATURE — ANIMAL HEAT. 

The heat of the body is due to chemical and vital changes which 
occur within the animal, and is maintained at an average temperature, 
with but slight variations, in all seasons, without regard to the tem- 
perature of the surrounding atmosphere. The principal source of ani- 
mal heat is oxidation, which takes place in the tissues throughout the 
body. The oxygen in the red corpuscles unites with the carbon (and 
forms carbonic acid gas) and with hydrogen (and forms water), and the 
chemical union is always accompanied by heat. Heat is lost from the 
body by evaporation, radiation, conduction, and with the escape of 
urine and feces, which prevents increase above the normal temperature. 
The vasomotor nerves, by regulating the size of the arteries, regulate 
the supply of blood to the parts, and thus assist in maintaining an 
average temperature. The average normal temperature of cattle in 
confinement is about 101° F. ; in oxen at work, or cattle at liberty, it is 
about 102° F. In calves it ranges a fraction of a degree higher. In 
very old animals it is lower than the average normal temperature. The 
method of ascertaining the temperature is by inserting the bulb of a 
clinical thermometer into the rectum, leaving sufficient remaining out- 
side by which to withdraw it. It should remain in the gut between 
three and four minutes. (Plate in, Fig. 1.) 

Some veterinarians are very expert in judging the temperature by 
inserting their fingers in the mouth, but this method requires much 
practice, both on the healthy and diseased animal. The hand or finger 
in the mouth will detect an elevation of temperature, but the thermom- 
eter is better, especially in the beginning or incubative stage of disease. 
The hand on the surface of the body can not give an idea of internal 
temperature, because the surface may feel cold while the interior is 
elevated above the normal. Increase above the normal temperature 
does not point to a particular disease, but in conjunction with other 
symptoms it is a valuable aid; and during the progress of a disease it 
is a guide. 

The changes which take place in tissues are increased by disease, and 
as a consequence the temperature is elevated, which, if continued, con- 
stitutes fever. Congestion, being an excessive quantity of blood in a 
part, is accompanied by an elevation of the temperature. Inflammation 
involves changes in the blood-vessels and circulation; there is escape 
of fluid blood and corpuscles from vessels, and changes in the inflamed 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 87 

tissues; and therefore it causes increased heat (which may be confined 
to the parts inflamed, or may be constitutional, as inflammation of the 
lungs, bowels, etc.). 

DISEASE OF THE HEART. 

Diseases of the heart among cattle are not very common, but they 
are by no means unknown, which is proved not so much by meeting 
with cases in practice as it is by post-mortem examinations. In this 
class of animals the detection of heart disease is attended with much 
difficulty. In man the heart is more superficially situated; the natural 
sounds may be heard distinctly, and any deviation from them is easily 
recognized; but in cattle the heart is enveloped by large lungs, large 
flat ribs, thick muscles, more or less fat, and thick skin covered with 
hair, which are obstacles in the way of detecting the variations of the 
sounds not to be overcome. However, the writer will endeavor to place 
before the reader all the important information bearing upon the sub- 
ject, collected from the best sources, as well as from practical expe- 
rience. 

Extensive heart disease may exist in a cow without any alarming 
symptoms being manifested. This is due to the fact that cows are not 
put to severe exertion. Affections, as will be pointed out hereafter, 
may pass unnoticed until after death, when an examination of the heart 
will discover a disease of such extraordinary character as to create the 
wonder how the animal lived without showing signs of serious ailment. 

The symptoms of the particular heart affections are in most cases so 
obscure that it is difficult to lay before the general reader signs which 
may be termed diagnostic. Therefore in a work of this kind it is not 
out of place to give a summary of those symptoms which usually ac- 
company diseases of the heart, so that when one or more of them are 
presented a more careful examination may be made for heart trouble. 
The following symptoms have been noticed in numerous cases of the 
different affections of this organ : Megrims or vertigo ; dropsical swell- 
ing of the legs; swelling under the jaw and on the neck and brisket; 
persistent palpitation of the heart; constant jugular pulse; fluttering 
of the heart; irregular, soft, and weak pulse, or strong and hard pulse; 
inability to undergo exertion; disinclination to move, and grunting 
when compelled to move; faintness; quickened breathing; irregular 
spasms of the muscles of the neck, breast, or legs. 

HEART SOUNDS. 

Corresponding with the beats of the heart two sounds are emitted, 
which in a state of health are uniform and characteristic. The first is 
longer and duller than the second, which is short and sharp, and is 
likened to the sound produced when two pieces of ribbon are snapped 
together. The interval between the two is very short, the sound of 
the first almost seems to be continued into the second. After the 



88 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

second sound there is a longer interval until the first is heard again, 
which corresponds with the interval, or pause, between the beats of the 
heart. Opinions differ as to the exact cause of these sounds. The first 
corresponds with, and is said to be due to, the closure of the auriculo- 
ventricular valves; by some authorities it is thought to be a muscular 
sound caused by the contraction of the ventricles; others think it is 
the impulse of the heart against the wall of the chest. The second 
sound is caused by the closure of the valves at the beginning of the 
common aorta and pulmonary artery. These sounds, as heard when 
the ear is placed against the chest, may be said to resemble the pro- 
nunciation of the words " lub-dup," " lub-dup," " lub-dup," etc. 

To appreciate these sounds, the ear is placed against the left side of 
the chest, a little above the j)oint where the elbow rests when the 
animal is standing in a natural position. By having an assistant pull 
the left fore leg and elbow forward, a better opportunity is afforded to 
place the ear against the chest in the desired location. If the hand is 
placed flatly against the chest in the same situation, the beating of the 
heart will be felt. The impulse of the heart may be felt and the sounds 
may be heard fairly well in lean cattle, but in fat ones it is difficult and 
often impossible to detect either impulse or sound with any degree of 
satisfaction. 

The impulse of the heart, as felt by placing the hand against the 
chest, is of some consequence in arriving at a conclusion in respect to 
disease of the heart; but it must be remembered that the impulse may 
be very much increased by diseases other than those of the heart, as 
for example, inflammation of various organs, severe pains, etc. The im- 
pulse may also be increased (when disease does not exist) by work, 
exercise, fright, or any cause of excitement. 

The variations from the natural heart sounds will be pointed out 
when the diseases, in which they occur, are described. 

PALPITATION. 

When the impulse of the heart is excessive, that is, when it beats 
more or less tumultuously, the familiar expression " palpitation of the 
heart" is applied; and by many it is called " thumps." The hand or 
ear placed against the chest easily detects the unnatural beating. In 
some cases it is so violent that the motion may be seen at a distance. 
Palpitation is but the symptom, and in many instances not connected 
with disease of the structure of the heart or its membranes. An ani- 
mal badly frightened may have palpitation. When it comes on sud- 
denly and soon passes away, it depends on some cause other than dis- 
ease of the heart; but when it is gradually manifested, and becomes 
constant, although more pronounced at one time than another, heart 
disease may be suspected, especially if other symptons of heart disease 
are present. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 89 

INJURY TO THE HEART BY FOREIGN BODIES. 

Cattle are addicted to the habit of chewing and swallowing many 
objects not intended by nature or man as articles of foorl. Every vet- 
erinarian of experience has met with instances to remind him of this, 
and it is well known to butchers. Among the great variety of things 
that have thus found their way into the stomachs of cattle the following 
have been noticed: Gold finger-rings, knitting needles, old shoes, table 
knives, wood, pieces of leather, pieces of wire, buttons, hairpins, 
brushes, nails, coins, etc. The more sharply-pointed objects often 
penetrate the wall of the stomach, gradually work their way toward 
the heart, pierce the pericardium (bag inclosing the heart), wound the 
heart, and prove fatal to the animal. Cases are recorded in which the 
foreign body has actually worked its way into one of the cavities of the 
heart. However, instances are known in which the object took a dif- 
ferent course, and finally worked its way toward the surface and was 
extracted from the wall of the chest. While it is possible that the 
object may pierce the wall at different parts of the alimentary canal, as 
it frequently does that of the rumen (paunch), it is thought that in the 
great majority of cases it passes through the wall of the reticulum 
(smaller honeycombed compartment, or second stomach) and is drawn 
toward the heart by the suction-like action of the chest. Post-mortem 
examinations have demonstrated the course it pursued, as adhesions 
and other results of the inflammation it caused were plainly to be seen. 
It is rare that there are any symptoms exhibited to lead one to suppose 
that there is anything amiss until the pericardium or heart is involved ; 
in fact, the object may be retained for a long time in one of the com- 
partments of the stomach, or, after finding its way through the wall, it 
may lodge in the tissues, perhaps cause an abscess or but slight trou- 
ble, until some circumstance causes it to move on. The object is often 
found having an eroded appearance, due to the chemical action of the 
fluid which surrounds it, and it is even recorded that it has been en- 
tirely dissolved. 

The symptoms of this trouble are not plain, and it is seldom possi- 
ble to give more than an opinion that certain symptoms have been exhib- 
ited in connection with a foreign body wounding the heart or its sac, 
but Prof. Williams (Veterinary Surgery) says: 

More commonly, however, the symptoms of the lesion have become gradually diag- 
nostic; at first symptomatic of indigestion, with capriciousness of the appetite, flatu- 
lence, and eructation of gases, and gradual emaciation. After awhile the pulse 
becomes exceedingly small; the jugular veins are distended; there is also a well- 
marked jugular thrill or pulse, extending even as high as the bifurcation of these 
veins, associated sometimes with palpitation of the heart. To these succeed cederua 
of the intermaxillary areolar tissue, gradually extending down the neck to the dew- 
lap ; in some instances clonic spasms of the superficial, particularly the cervical 
muscles. 



90 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Hill, in his " Bovine Medicine and Surgery," reports the following 
case, which will serve as an illustration of the trouble: 

A cow was near the time of calving, when she became seriously ill, but the 
symptoms did not indicate any connection with parturition ; indeed, they were of 
such obscure nature that it was impossible to say what was the malady. There were 
dullness, unwillingness to move, constipation, and cedematous swelling about her. 
She died on the sixth day. On opening her it appeared that the heart and its in- 
vesting membrane or bag occupied nearly three times their natural space. The deli- 
cate and transparent membrane was thickened until it bore no slight resemblance to 
a portion of the paunch ; and the bag contained a gallon of discolored fluid. A 
piece of darning-needle, two inches and a half in length, with the eye broken off, 
was found in the pericardium, and a small ulcer, three-quarters of an inch deep, 
appeared near the apex or point of the heart. Two sixpenny nails were found in 
the paunch. 

Hill also reports the following case of a cow attended by himself: 

I found her breathing short, eyes unusually bright, pulse quick, temperature 105°, 
milk nearly gone, and no appetite. I was informed by the bailiff that she had 
appeared well until the day but one previously, and he thought she must have taken 
cold during one of the bleak nights she was out. There was, however, no grunting 
or cough ; the breathing, which I have stated was short, was to appearance much 
the same as one observed in a broken- winded horse — a jerking double movement in 
the flank. On auscultation, congestion of both lungs — particularly the left — was 
manifest. I ordered mustard to be applied to the sides, and sent a diffusible stimu- 
lant to be given in gruel morning and night. She continued in the same state until 
the 25th, when diarrhea set in, and I observed the slightest perceptible grunt ; her 
pulse had now reached 96, and the temperature was still high. From her disinclina- 
tion to move, the absence of any cough, the grunt and the peculiarity in the breathing 
which I have observed before in such cases, I suggested the probability of some for- 
eign body having been swallowed. 

The cow died in great agony on the 28th. Post-morteui examination 
discovered a stocking needle, 3 inches long, in the apex of the heart, and 
the heart and pericardium diseased to such an extent that they weighed 
17 pounds. 

As a matter of course, treatment in such cases is useless, but when 
it is possible to diagnose the case correctly the animal could be turned 
over to the butcher before the flesh becomes unfit for use. Knowing 
that cattle are prone to swallow such objects, ordinary care may be 
exercised in keeping their surroundings as free of them as possible. 

PERICARDITIS. 

Inflammation of the pericardium (heart-bag) is often associated with 
pneumonia and pleurisy, rheumatism, and other constitutional diseases. 
It also occurs as an independent affection, due to causes similar to 
those of other chest affections, as exposure to cold or dampness, and 
changes of the weather. 

Symptoms. — It may be ushered in with a chill, followed by fever, of 
more or less severity ; the animal stands still and dull, with head hanging 
low, and anxiety expressed in its countenance. The pulse may be large, 
perhaps hard; there is also a venous pulse. The hand against the 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 91 

chest will feel the beating of the heart, which is often irregular, some- 
times violent, and in other instances weak. Legs are cold ; the breath- . 
ing quickened, and usually abdominal ; if the left side of the chest be 
pressed on or struck, the animal evinces much pain; there also may be 
a furrow or line extending along the line of the false ribs from below 
and behind the elbow back to the flank. (It must be remembered that 
most of these symptoms are also seen in connection with pleurisy, and 
care must be taken to discriminate.) There may be spasms of the 
muscles in the region of the breast, neck, or hind legs. After a time, 
which varies in length, the legs may become swollen, and swelling may 
also appear under the chest and brisket. 

In those animals in which the heart sounds may be heard somewhat 
distinctly, the ear applied against the chest will detect a to-and-fro 
friction sound, corresponding to the beats of the heart; this sound is 
produced by the rubbing of the internal surface of the heart-bag against 
he external surface of the heart. During the first stages of the in- 
flammation these surfaces are dry, and the rubbing of one against the 
other during the contraction and relaxation of the heart produces the 
to-and-fro friction sound. The dry stage is followed by the exudation 
of fluid into the heart- sac, and the friction is not heard until the fluid 
is absorbed sufficiently to allow the surfaces to come in contact again. 
But during the time the friction sound is lost a sound which has been 
called a " churning noise " may take its place. When the to-and-fro 
friction sound does not return, adhesion of the surfaces may be sus- 
pected. A murmuring sound, likened to that made by a bellows, some- 
times takes the place of the friction sound, and signifies that endocar- 
ditis is also present. 

The friction sound of pericarditis can not be mistaken for the friction 
sound of pleurisy if the examination is a careful one, because, in the 
heart affection, the sound is made in connection with the heart beats, 
while in the pleuritic affection the sound is synchronous with each 
respiration or breath of air taken in and expelled from the lungs. 

Treatment. — When pericarditis is complicated with rheumatism or 
other diseases, they must be treated as directed in the description of 
them. The animal must be kept in a quiet, comfortable place, where it 
will be free from excitement. Warm clothing should be applied to the 
body and the legs hand-rubbed until the circulation in them is reestab- 
lished, and then snugly bandaged. The food should be nutritive, and 
in moderate quantity. Bleeding should not be performed unless the 
case is in the hands of an expert. 

At the beginning give as a purgative Epsom salts — 1 pound to an 
average-sized cow — dissolved in about a quart of warm water, and 
administered as a drench. When there is much pain 2 ounces of 
laudanum may be given, diluted with a pint of water, every three hours, 
until relief is given. Do not give the laudanum unless demanded by 
the severity of the pain, as it tends to constipation. During the acute- 



92 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

ness of tlie attack 20 drops of .tincture of aconite in a few ounces of 
water every three or four hours as a drench, or in drinking water, is 
beneficial, but it is far safer for the nonprofessional to give a half 
ounce of nitrate of potassium (saltpeter), dissolved in drinking water, 
four or five times a day. After the attack has abated, mustard mixed 
with water may be rubbed well over the left side of the chest to stim- 
ulate the absorption of the fluid contained within the pericardium. The 
other medicines may be discontinued and the following administered: 
Sulphate of iron, 2 ounces; powdered gentian, 6 ounces, mix and make 
eight powders. Give one powder every day at noon ; mixed with food, 
if the animal will eat it, or shaken up with water in a bottle as a drench. 
Also the following : Iodide of potassium, 2 ounces ; nitrate of potas- 
sium, 8 ounces; mix and make sixteen powders. Give one in drinking 
water, or in drench, every morning and evening. The two last pre- 
scriptions may be continued for several weeks if necessary. 

If at any time during the attack much weakness is manifested, give 
the following drench every three hours: Spirits of nitrous ether, 3 
ounces; rectified spirits, 4 ounces; water, 1 pint; mix, and give as a 
drench. 

In some cases the fluid within the pericardial sac does not readily 
undergo absorption. In such cases, in addition to the administration 
of the iron and iodide of potassium preparations before advised, a blis- 
ter composed of red iodide of mercury, 2 drains, and lard, 10 drams, 
well rubbed in over the chest in the region of the heart, may have the 
desired effect. In extreme cases tapping the j>ericardiuni with a trocar 
and canula, to draw off the fluid, is resorted to, but the operation re- 
quires exact anatomical knowledge. 

After death from pericarditis there is always more or less fluid found 
in the pericardium ; the surfaces are rough and covered with a yellow- 
colored exudate. There are also, in many cases, adhesions, to a greater 
or less extent, between the heart and pericardium. 

MYOCARDITIS. 

Inflammation of the muscular structure of the heart occurs in limited, 
circumscribed areas, as evidenced by post-mortem examination, and it 
is probably always somewhat involved in connection with pericarditis 
and endocarditis. It may readily be inferred that if the whole organ 
were inflamed death would ensue immediately. When it is complicated 
there are no symptoms by which it may be distinguished from the other 
affections. Examination after death has revealed abscesses in the walls 
of the heart, and spots where inflammation had existed. 

ENDOCARDITIS. 

When the membrane which lines the cavities of the heart — the endo- 
cardium — suffers inflammation the disease is called endocarditis. When 
it exists it is usually a complication of rheumatism. The symptoms are 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 93 

much the same as those of pericarditis, and it is difficult to discriminate 
between the two affections. As in other heart troubles, there is a jug- 
ular pulse, the legs may become dropsical, and there is a tendency to 
faint if the head is elevated suddenly. It is said that the bellows-like 
sound is much more distinct than it is in pericarditis. It is the most 
fatal of heart diseases, because of the liability of the formation of clots, 
which may adhere to the valves, change in the structure of the valves, 
and often a complication with an abnormal condition of the blood. 
Clots may be formed in 'the heart and, being carried to other parts, 
prove fatal by interrupting the circulation in some vital organ. 

The same treatment as advised for pericarditis may be followed in 
this disease. Especial precautions should be observed in the use of 
aconite. 

VALVES OF THE HEART. 

The valves are subject to abnormal growths and structural changes. 
Cases are also reported in which they have been found ruptured. The 
want of diagnostic symptoms in cattle makes it useless to enumerate 
signs of no practical value. 

TUMORS IN THE HEART. 

Post-mortem examinations have revealed tumors of various kinds 
and shapes in the cavities of the heart of cattle. They may be attached 
to the walls or valves, or exist in the structure of the wall. They have 
also been found externally, of enormous size, attached to the apex. On 
this subject Gamgee remarks : 

It is evident that the importance of these organic disorders varies as much from 
the position of the growth as from its size and tendency to interfere with the heart's 
action. The presence of a small obstruction within the heart is calculated to en- 
danger an animal's life far more than an external tumor. Thus, a polypus forming 
within the auricle may drop on the corresponding auriculo-ventricular opening and 
arrest the blood's flow. It is remarkable that, as shown by Case II, reported below, 
a large polypus may have its pedicle in the auricle, and continue growing in the 
ventricle to the extent of filling the latter, and yet the animal died suddenly without 
having previously shown signs of ill health. 

The polypus referred to in Case II was found in the heart of an ox, 
and measured over five inches in its greatest length, and over nine 
inches in its greatest circumference. 

HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART. 

This is an enlargement of the heart, and may consist of the thicken- 
ing of the walls alone, or at the same time the cavities may be either 
enlarged or diminished in size. Dilatation of the cavities has also been 
noticed, as existing independently of thickened walls. It is said that 
in hypertrophy the sounds of the heart are loud and pronounced, and 
may be heard on both sides of the chest very distinctly, and palpita- 
tion to a greater or less extent is constant. Luckily both conditions 
are very rare in cattle. 



94 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

ATROPHY. 

Atrophy is the technical term for wasting of the muscular tissue. 
Atrophy of the heart is very rare among cattle, and is usually a result 
of other diseases. 

FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. 

This condition of the heart is met with in cattle, but it must be un- 
derstood that the accumulation of fat around the heart is not referred 
to by this designation. In fatty degeneration the elements of the mus- 
cular tissue are replaced by fatty or oily granules. 

CYANOSIS. 

Owing to the most prominent symptom, this condition is also called 
" blue disease." It is seen occasionally in new-born calves. It is rec- 
ognized by the blue color of the mucus membrane (easily seen by look- 
ing within the mouth and nostrils), the coldness of the surface of the 
body, and rapid, labored breathing. It is due to nonclosure of the 
foramen ovale (see description of the heart) and the consequent mixing 
of the venous with the arterial blood. Calves so affected live but a 
short time. 

MISPLACEMENT OF THE HEART. 

Cases are recorded in which the heart has been found out of its 
natural position, sometimes located outside of the chest. This is a con- 
genital condition, for which there is no remedy. 

WOUNDS OF ARTERIES AND VEINS. 

When a blood-vessel is opened it may be told at a glance whether 
it is an artery or a vein by simply bearing in mind that bright red blood 
comes from arteries and dark red from veins. When a vein or a very 
small artery is severed the blood flows from the vessel in a continuous 
and even stream, but when one of the larger arteries is severed the 
blood comes from it in intermitting jets or spurts, corresponding to the 
beats of the heart. It is well to call attention to the fact that the dark 
red blood which flows or oozes from a wound soon becomes bright red, 
because it gives up its carbonic acid gas to the air, and absorbs oxygon 
gas from the air, which is exactly the change it undergoes in the cap- 
illaries of the lungs. 

The general treatment of wounds will be found in another section; 
here it is only necessary to refer briefly to some of the most practical 
methods used to arrest hemorrhages, as instances occur where an 
animal may lose much strength from the loss of blood, or even bleed to 
death unless action is prompt. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 95 

HEMORRHAGE. 

The severity of a hemorrhage depends upon the size of the vessel 
from which the blood escapes, though it may be stated that it is more 
serious when arteries are severed; however, a great deal depends on 
the manner in which the vessel is wounded. If the wound in an artery 
is in the direction of its length, the blood escapes more freely than 
if the vessel is completely severed, because in the latter instance the 
severed ends retract, and may aid very much in arresting the flow. 
When the blood merely oozes from the wound, and even in cases where 
it flows in a small stream, the forming of the clot, as explained in the 
description of the blood, arrests the hemorrhage in a comparatively 
short time. 

Slight hemorrhages may be checked by the continuous application to 
the wound of cold water, ice, or snow, as they cause a contraction of the 
small vessels. The water may be thrown on a wound from a hose, or 
dashed on it from the hand or a cup, or folds of cotton cloths may be 
held on the wound and kept wet. Ice or snow may be held against the 
wound, or they may be put in a bag and conveniently secured in posi- 
tion. 

Hot water of an average temperature of 115° to 120° F. injected into 
the vagina or womb is often efficient in arresting hemorrhages from 
those organs. Tow, raw cotton, lint, or sponges may be forced into a 
wound and held or bound there with bandages. This is an excellent 
method in checking the flow of blood until the arrival of an expert. If 
the flow persists these articles may be saturated with tincture of iron, 
but it is not advisable to use the tincture of iron if it can be avoided, 
as it is a caustic, and retards healing by causing a slough. The arti- 
cles may be saturated with vinegar in cases of necessity, or tannic acid, 
or alum, dissolved in water may be used instead. The article (which- 
ever is used) should be left in the wound sufficiently long to make sure 
that its removal will not be followed by a renewal of the hemorrhage. 
It should remain there one or two days in some instances, unless removed 
by the veterinarian. 

An iron heated until it is white and then pressed on the bleeding 
vessel for three or four seconds is occasionally used. It should be at 
white heat and applied for a moment only, or else the charred tissue 
will come away with the iron and thus defeat the purpose of its appli- 
cation. 

The best of all means is compression. This may be applied in different 
ways, but only the most convenient will be mentioned. In most wounds 
bandages may easily be applied. The bandages may be made of linen, 
muslin, etc., sufficiently wide and long, according to the nature of the 
wound and the region to be bandaged. Bed sheets torn in strips the 
full length make excellent bandages for this purpose. Cotton batting- 
tow, or a piece of sponge may be idaced on the wound and firmly bound 
there with the bandages. 



96 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

In many instances ligating the vessel is necessary. A ligature is a 
piece of thread or string tied around the vessel. Ligating is almost 
entirely confined to arteries. Veins are not ligated unless very large 
(and even then only when other means are not available) on account of 
the danger of i)hlebitis or inflammation of a vein. The ligature is tied 
around the end of the artery, but in some instances this is difficult, and 
it is necessary to include some of the adjacent tissue, although care 
should be taken that a nerve is not included. To apply a ligature it is 
necessary to have artery forceps (tweezers or small pincers may suffice) 
by which to draw out the artery in order to tie the string around it. 
To grasp the vessel it may be necessary to sponge the blood from the 
wound so that the end will be exposed. In case the end of the bleeding 
artery has retracted, a sharp-pointed hook called a tenaculum is used 
to draw it out far enough to tie. The ligature should be drawn tightly 
so that the middle and internal coats will be cut through. 

Another method of checking hemorrhage is called torsion. It consists 
in catching the end of the bleeding vessel, drawing it out a little, and 
then twisting it around a few times with the forceps, which lacerates 
the internal coats so that a check is effected. It is very effectual in 
small vessels, and is to be preferred to ligatures, because it leaves no 
foreign body in the wound. A needle or pin may be stuck through 
the edges of a wound, and a string passed round between the free ends 
and the skin (Plate xxvin, Fig. 10), or it may bepassed round in the form 
of the figure 8, as is often done in the operation of bleeding from the jug- 
ular vein. 

ARTERITIS. 

Inflammation of arteries is of rare occurrence in cattle, and requires 
no more than mention here. 

DEGENERATION OF THE COATS OF ARTERIES. 

Three kinds are recognized: (1) Calcareous degeneration, in which 
phosphate and carbonate of lime are deposited in the middle coat of an 
artery; the calcification may extend to the external and internal coats ; 
it is associated with old age; (2) cartilaginous degeneration, affecting 
small arteries; (3) fatty degeneration, usually met with in cases of fatty 
degeneration of other parts. 

ANEURISM. 

A circumscribed dilatation of an artery, constituting a tumor which 
pulsates synchronously with the beats of the heart, is called aneurism. 
It is due to disease and rupture of one or two of the arterial coats. The 
true aneurism communicates with the interior of the artery, and con- 
tains coagulated blood. They are so deeply seated in cattle that treat- 
ment is out of the question. Death is sudden when due to the rupture 



DISEASES OP THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 97 

of an aneurism of a large artery, owing to internal hemorrhage. A false 
aneurism results from blood escaping from a wounded artery into the 
adjacent tissue, where it clots, and the wound, remaining open in the 
artery, causes pulsation in the tumor. 

INFLAMMATION OF VEINS— PHLEBITIS. 

When bleeding is performed without proper care, or with unclean 
fleam or lancet, inflammation of the vein may result. It may be caused 
by the animal rubbing the wound against some object. When inflamma- 
tion follows the operation the coats of the vein become enlarged, so 
much so that the vessel may be felt hard and knotted beneath the 
skin, and when pressed on pain is evinced. A thin, watery discharge, 
tinged with blood, issues from the wound. When the pin is taken out 
it is found that the wound has not healed. The blood becomes coagu- 
lated in the vessel. In inflammation of the jugular the coagulation 
extends from the wound upward to the first large branch. Abscesses 
may form along the course of the vein. The inflammation is followed 
by obliteration of that part in which coagulation exists. This is of 
small import, as cattle have an accessory jugular vein which gradually 
enlarges and accommodates itself to the increased quantity of blood 
it must carry. (The existence of this accessory jugular vein is the rea- 
son why only a small stream of blood is obtained in certain instances j 
when the large jugular vein is opened, the blood flows through the 
deeper seated collateral vessel.) The treatment for inflammation of 
the vein is to clip the hair from along the course of the affected vessel 
and apply a blister, the cerate of cantharides. Abscesses should be 
opened as soon as they form, because there is a possibility of the pus 
getting into the circulation. 

In the operation of bleeding the instruments should be clean and free 
from rust. If the skin is not sufficiently opened, or when closing the 
wound the skin is drawn out too much, blood may accumulate in the 
tissue, and if it does it should be removed by pressing absorbent cotton 
or a sponge on the part. Care should also be used in opening the vein, 
so that the instrument does not pass entirely through both sides of the 
vein, and open the artery beneath it. (See Bleeding or Blood-letting, 
p. 307.) 

VARICOSE VEINS. 

The following quotation is from Prof. Williams's Veterinary Surgery: 

The reins of the extremities of horned cattle present varicose dilatations along 
their course in the form of sacculated or knotty protuberances on various parts of the 
vessels ; the contained blood is at first in a fluid state, but an alteration not unfre- 
quently occurs, the blood coagulates, and the vessel becomes obstructed. The for- 
mation of these coagula is an effect of inflammation in the coats of the vein ; this 
inflammation may be slight or it may run on to suppuration, giving rise to small 
abscesses. I have repeatedly met with this form of phlebitis in cattle underfed and 
24697 7 



98 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

kept in wet, cold situations. It seems to arise from debility of the circulation and 
relaxation or want of tone in the coats of the vessels. The treatment for dilatation 
without inflammation: Better food, warmth, and comfort; tonics and pressure by 
bandages ; and, in addition, when suppuration is established, the abscesses are to be 
opened and blisters applied, but no pressure. 

AIR IN VEINS. - 

Owing to the suction action in the chest (referred to in the descrip- 
tion of the blood-vessels), when a large vein is opened in the vicinity of 
the chest air may be sucked in, which, if in great quantity, will cause 
death, as the air bubbles are carried by the blood to the capillaries of 
the lungs, where they impede the circulation by occluding the small 
vessels. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. 
Plate VII: 

Diagram illustrating the circulation of the blood. The arrows indicate the direc- 
tion in which the blood flows. The valves of the heart, situated between the 
right auricle and ventricle, and left auricle and ventricle, and between the 
ventricles and large arteries, are represented by curved lines. These valves 
are intended to prevent the flow of blood in a direction contrary to that indi- 
cated by the arrows. 
100 



NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRA- 
TION. 



By Dr. WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE, 

Superintendent of the United States Neat Cattle Quarantine Station for the Port of New 

York, Garfield, N. J. 



In the determination of disease in the human being the physician is 
aided by both subjective and objective symptoms in making his diag- 
nosis ; but the veterinary physician, in a very large majority of cases, 
is obliged to rely almost solely upon objective symptoms, and perhaps 
in no class of diseases is this more true than in the exploration of those 
under consideration. This condition of affairs has a strong tendency to 
develop observation and discernment in the veterinarian, and not infre- 
quently do we find that the successful veterinary practitioner is a very 
accurate diagnostician. But in order to make a differential diagnosis 
it is not only necessary to have a knowledge of the structure and func- 
tions of the organs in health, but to adopt a rigid system of details 01 
examination, without which successful results can not be reached. The- 
rapeutical treatment is worse than useless until the nature and seat of 
the diseased process have been determined. The history of the case 
should always be ascertained as far as possible and duly weighed. True, 
this is often unreliable, but even when this is the case it is advisable to 
weigh the evidence pro and con. 

As above indicated, it is only the careful and constant examination of 
animals in health that will enable one to properly appreciate abnormal 
conditions. One must become familiar with the frequency and charac- 
ter of the pulse and of the respiration — must know the temperature of 
the animal in health, before changes in abnormal conditions can be prop- 
erly appreciated. 

The pulse in the healthy ox is more frequent than in the horse, beat- 
ing from forty-five to fifty times per minute, while in the latter it only 
beats thirty-six to forty. The pulse may be felt wherever an artery 
passes over a bone close to the skin. Exercise, overfeeding, pregnancy, 
and other things may affect the frequency and character of the pulse. 
It assumes various characters according to its rapidity of beat, fre 
quency of occurrence, resistance to pressure, regularity, and percepti- 

101 



102 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

bility. Tims we Lave the quick and slow, frequent and infrequent, hard 
and soft, full and imperceptible, large and small pulses, the characters 
of which may be determined from their names; also that form known 
as the intermittent, either regular. or irregular. We may have a di- 
crotic or double pulse; a thready pulse, which is extremely small and 
scarcely perceptible; the venous pulse, the "running down" pulse, 
and so on. (See p. 84.) 

In making an examination of an animal observe the depth, frequency, 
quickness, facility, and the nature of the respiratory movements. They 
may be quick or slow, frequent or infrequent, deep or imperfect, la- 
bored, unequal, irregular, etc., each of which has its significance to the 
educated and experienced veterinarian. 

Sleep, rumination, pregnancy in cows, etc., modify the respiratory 
movements even in health. Eespiration consists of two acts, inspira- 
tion and expiration. The function of respiration is to take in oxygen 
from the atmospheric air, which is essential for the maintenance of life, 
and to exhale the deleterious gas known as carbon dioxide. 

Cough is a very important symptom, often being diagnostic in diseases 
of the respiratory organs, but which can be more satisfactorily treated 
in connection with the special diseases of the organs in question. 

The temperature should be taken in all cases of sickness. Expe- 
rienced practitioners can approximate the patient's temperature with 
remarkable accuracy, but I would strongly recommend the use of the 
self- registering clinical thermometer, which is a most valuable instru- 
ment in diagnosing diseases. (See Plate in, Fig. 1). It is important that 
a tested instrument be secured, as some thermometers in the market are 
inaccurate and are worse than useless. The best place to insert the 
thermometer in the bovine is in the rectum, although it may be inserted 
in the mouth, or in the vagina of the cow. The instrument should be 
rested against the walls of the cavity for about three minutes. The 
normal temperature of the bovine is 101 J° F. to 102° F., which is higher 
than that of the horse. A cow breathes faster, her heart beats faster, 
and her internal temperature is higher than that of the horse. Ordi- 
nary physiological influences, such as exercise, digestion, etc., give rise 
to slight variations of internal temperature, but if the temperature 
rises two or three degrees above the standard some diseased condition 
is indicated. 

Auscultation and percussion are the chief methods employed to de- 
termine the various pathological changes that occur in the respiratory 
organs. Auscultation is the act of listening, and may be either mediate or 
immediate. Mediate auscultation is accomplished by aid of an instru- 
ment known as the stethoscope, one extremity of which is applied to 
the ear and the other to the chest of the animal. In immediate aus- 
cultation the ear is applied directly to the part. Immediate ausculta- 
tion will answer in a large majority of cases. Auscultation is resorted 
to in cardiac and certain abdominal diseases, but it is mainly employed 



NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 103 

for determining tlie condition of tlie lungs and air passages. Animals 
can not give the various phases of respiration on demand, as can the 
patients of the human practitioner. The organs themselves are less 
accessible than in man, owing to the greater bulk of tissue surrounding 
them and the pectoral position of the fore extremities, all of which 
render it more difficult in determining pathological conditions. (See 
Plate vin.) 

If the ear be applied to the throat of a healthy bovine the air will be 
heard passing through the windpipe with a regular, steady, blowing 
sound; if applied to the chest, a soft, rustling murmur will be heard, 
caused by the air passing in and out of the fine tubes and air cells of 
the lungs, which has been likened to a gentle breeze in the tree tops. 
But when the lungs or throat are diseased the sounds are very much 
changed, a point which will be dealt with in connection with the treat- 
ment of the special diseases of the organs of respiration. 

Percussion is that mode of examination by which we elicit sounds by 
striking or tapping over the part. It may be direct or indirect. If the 
ends of the fingers of the left hand are placed firmly on the chest and 
smartly tapped with the ends of the first three fingers of the right hand 
the sound will be noticed to be more resonant and clear than when the 
same procedure is practiced on a solid part of the body. This is be- 
cause the lungs are not solid, but are always in health, well expanded 
with air. But in certain pulmonary diseases they fill up and become 
solid, when the sound given out by percussing them is like that on any 
other solid part of the animal. By practice on healthy animals the 
character and boundaries of the sounds can be so well determined that 
any variations from them will be at once detected, and will sometimes 
disclose the presence of a diseased condition, when nothing else will. 

CATARRH — COLD IN THE HEAD. 

Nasal catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the 
nostrils and upper air passages. Simple catarrh is not a serious disease 
in itself, but if neglected is liable to be complicated with laryngitis, 
bronchitis, pneumonia, pleurisy, and other diseases of the respiratory 
organs, which are of a serious nature, and sometimes fatal. Catarrh is 
a common disease among cattle. It is often due to sudden exposure, 
to wet and cold after they have been accustomed to shelter. It may 
arise from inhalation of irritating gases. It is sometimes due to certain 
specific atmospheric conditions, and may assume an enzootic form ; it is 
very debilitating, and requires prompt and judicious treatment. 

Symptoms. — Redness of the mucous membranes of the nose, redness 
and watering of the eyes. The mucous membrane first becomes dry; 
afterwards a watery discharge appears, and later on in severe cases the 
discharge becomes mucopurulent. In mild cases there is little or no 
fever, but in severe cases the fever may run high. The animal becomes 
dull, languid, and is not inclined to move about, and the appetite may 



104 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

become impaired; there is variable temperature of the horns and ears. 
If in a cow giving milk, the secretion diminishes; the mucus from the 
eyes and nose becomes thicker and yellower. Afterwards, as the symp- 
toms increase in severity, the discharge becomes mucopurulent. 

Treatment. — The animal should be housed in a well- ventilated place, 
with good hygienic surroundings. In cold and damp weather it 
should be kept warm with blanketing. Give hot, medicated inhal- 
ations in severe cases. If the fever is high this may be reduced by 
giving nitrate of potassium, from 1 to 2 ounces, in the drinking water, 
three times daily. Diffusible stimulants are beneficial in most cases. 
Too much importance can not be attached to good nursing. There is 
no necessity to resort to the old system of bleeding, purging, or the use 
of powerful sedatives. 

EPISTAXIS — BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. 

Bleeding from the nostrils is rather rare in cattle. It may arise 
from any one of a variety of causes, but usually results from disease or 
injury to the mucous membranes, or to violent exertions in coughing and 
sneezing. It is seldom serious. The bleeding generally occurs in 
drops from one nostril only, accompanied by sneezing, and without 
frothing. Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils, is bright 
red, frothy, and accompanied by a cough. 

Treatment. — In many cases the bleeding will cease spontaneously, 
and all that is necessary is to keep the animal quiet and bathe the head 
and nostrils with cold water. Ascertain the cause of the bleeding and 
be governed accordingly in the treatment. In severe and exceptional 
cases, where the hemorrhage is persistent and long continued, tie the 
animal's head to a high rack or beam and apply cold water, ice, or have 
recourse to styptic injections. If the hemorrhage is profuse and per- 
sistent give either a drench composed of 1£ drams of acetate of lead 
dissolved in a pint of water, or 1£ drams of gallic acid dissolved in a 
pint of water. 

LARYNGITIS — SORE THROAT. 

Laryngitis consists of an inflammation of the mucous membrane lin- 
ing the larynx. It may be either a primary or a secondary disease, 
complicated or uncomplicated. In the majority of cases it is due to 
some form of exposure, a sudden change from warm to cold surround- 
ings, or exposure to cold storms. It may also arise from inhaling 
irritating gases. It may be the result of external violence. In an acute 
attack of laryngitis there is an elevation of temperature, pain on pres- 
sure over the region of larynx, violent paroxysms of coughing, difficult 
and noisy respiration. The nostrils are dilated, the nose extended, and 
the animal has a frightened expression. There is marked difficulty in 
swallowing. 



NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 105 

Treatment. — This consists of fomentations and hot applications over 
the throat. Stimulating liniments, mustard, or other forms of counter 
irritation, may be applied in severe cases. Hot inhalations should be 
frequently resorted to, and often afford much relief to the suffering 
animal. In this disease medicines should be given as far as possible in 
the form of electuaries {soft solid), on account of the difficulty of degluti- 
tion. Large drafts of medicines have a tendency to produce violent 
spells of coughing, and in this way retard recovery. The subjoined 
formula for an electuary will be found to answer the purpose in ordinary 
cases: Chlorate of potassium, pulverized, 8 ounces; fluid extract of 
belladonna, 2 ounces; powdered opium, 1 ounce; powdered licorice 
root, 8 ounces; sirup, sufficient quantity, and mix. At frequent inter- 
vals place a small tablespoonful of the mixture on the tongue or back 
teeth. Or the following may be used instead : 

Aloes, powdered opium, and gum camphor in equal parts. Mix. 
Rub an ounce on the molar teeth every four or five hours. The bowels 
should be kept open and the diet should be such as the patient can 
easily swallow. Warm sloppy mashes, boiled oatmeal gruel, linseed 
tea, and the like, are the most suitable substances. If suffocation be 
threatened during the course of the disease tracheotomy should be per- 
formed without delay. The details of the operation are fully described 
in the chapter on Surgical Operations. (See p. 308.) 

When the disease assumes a chronic form strong counter irritation 
is indicated. A cantharides blister may be applied, or the following 
ointment may be used: Biniodide of mercury, 1 part; lard, 6 parts. 
Mix. In some cases it will be found necessary to repeat the above 
application. 

BRONCHITIS. 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bron- 
chial tubes. When a primary disease it is generally the result of what 
is commonly know as "catching cold." It may be secondary to or 
complicated with many of the diseases of the respiratory system. It 
may also be caused by breathing irritating gases, or by the introduc- 
tion of foreign bodies into the bronchial tubes, which sometimes result 
from injudicious and careless drenching when the larynx is in a tem- 
porarily relaxed state. It may be acute or chronic, and is divided ac- 
cording to the seat of the inflammation into bronchitis proper, where 
the large tubes are affected, or capillary bronchitis, where the smaller 
tubes are affected. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, elevation of temperature, generally 104° 
or 105° F. The inspiration is incomplete, short, and painful, and the 
expiration is prolonged. The pulse is increased in frequency, and is 
hard. A characteristic and painful cough is present, but it is paroxys- 
mal and incomplete. Auscultation and percussion greatly aid us in a 
diagnosis. A normal sound is observed on percussion. On ausculta- 



106 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tion, in the early stages, rhonclms rales are detected if the larger tubes 
are affected, and sibilus rales if the smaller tubes are affected. Later 
on mucous rales are noted, and sometimes all sounds in certain parts 
are absent, which is due to the plugging up of the tubes. This plug- 
ging of the tubes if extensive enough is sometimes the cause of death, 
or death may result from extension of the disease to the lungs or pleura. 

Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a light, well ventilated 
box, and the bowels kept in a soft condition by enemas, etc. Avoid 
violent purgatives. The body should be kept warm by blanketing. In 
the early stages give three times daily a draft composed as follows : 
Extract of belladonna, 2 drains; solution of acetate of ammonium, 4 
fluid ounces; water, one-half pint. In the later stage of the disease 
substitute the following formula, which maybe given twice daily: Car- 
bonate of ammonium, 3 drams; solution of the hydrochlorate of strych- 
nine, 2 fluid drams; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 fluid ounce; water, one- 
half pint. 

In some cases the following is preferable to either of the above, and 
may be given in a pint of linseed tea every four hours : Spirits aether, 
nit., 1^ ounces; spirits ammon. arom., 2 ounces; camphor, powdered, 2 
drams. The food should be light and nutritious. 

Bronchitis is liable to assume a chronic form if not properly treated 
in the earliest stage. Eemedial treatment is of little value when the 
disease becomes chronic. 

PLEURISY. 

Pleurisy is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the chest 
cavity and enveloping the lungs. It rarely occurs as an independent 
disease, but is generally complicated with pneumonia. It may be cir- 
cumscribed or diffused, unilateral or double. It arises from exposure 
to cold and wet, as with pneumonia and bronchitis. It occasionally is 
caused by a penetrating wound. 

Symptoms. — In the first stage there is great pain, due to the dry and 
inflamed surfaces of the pleura rubbing together. This gives rise to 
the friction murmur. The temperature ranges from 104° to 105° F. 
The pulse is small, quick, frequent, and hard. The respirations are 
abdominal, the breath being taken in short jerking inspirations and 
emitted in long expirations. The cough is sharp, suppressed, and 
painful. Pressure in the intercostal spaces give rise to pain, the ani- 
mal flinching and giving a grunt. The muzzle is dry and hot, the mouth 
slimy and secretions scant. The symptoms increase in severity as the 
disease advances, and in the second stage effusions are poured out into 
the thoracic cavity. The pulse becomes soft and remains frequent and 
small. The elbows are turned out and the animal has a diagnostic 
grunt. On percussion a dull sound is observed as high up as the fluid 
has risen in the chest, and on auscultation there is an absence of all 
resjriratory murmur below this line. 



NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OE THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 107 

Treatment. — Give tlie same general care as recommended in bron- 
chitis or pneumonia. In the early stages give a febrifuge to reduce the 
fever, as directed for pneumonia. For relief of the cough give electuary 
formula, which will be found in the treatment of laryngitis. The bowels 
must be kept relaxed and the kidneys secreting freely. In the stage of 
effusion give the following three times daily: Digitalis tinct., 1 ounce; 
iodide of potassium, 30 to 60 grains; mix. Apply strong counterirritant 
to chest and put seton in dewlap. (See Setoning, p. 308.) If collapse 
of the lung is threatened a surgical operation is sometimes performed, 
termed paracentesis thoracis, which consists in puncturing the chest 
cavity and drawing off a part of the fluid. The instruments used 
are a small trocar and canula, which are introduced between the eighth 
and ninth ribs. Draw the skin forward so that the external wound 
may not correspond with the puncture of the chest, to prevent the en- 
trance of air. Only a portion of the fluid should be removed. The 
animal gets immediate relief, but it is generally only temporary, as 
there is a tendency for the fluid to accumulate again. 

PNEUMONIA. 

This is an inflammation of the lung substance. It is divided into three 
different forms, viz : First, croupous ; second, catarrhal ; and third, in- 
terstitial pneumonia. But these various forms can only be differen- 
tiated by the expert, and I therefore deem it necessary for the purposes 
of the present work to treat the subject under the general head of 
pneumonia. 

The causes of pneumonia in general are the same as those of the 
various other inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. It mostly 
follows congestion of the lungs, but may in rare cases have a parasitic 
origin. 

Symptoms. — In the first stage, that of congestion, the disease is 
usually ushered in by a chill, although this may not always be observed 
by the attendant. This is followed by an elevation of temperature, 
usually 105° to 106° F., or it may be even higher. The respirations are 
quick and shallow; the nostrils are dilated; the pulse is full and hard. 
Cough may or may not appear in this stage. The nose is hot and dry; 
the tongue sometimes protrudes and is slimy; the coat is staring, and 
the skin dry and harsh. The urine is usually diminished in quantity, 
high colored, and the bowels constipated. The animal stands with the 
forelegs wide apart to facilitate respiration. On auscultation crepita- 
tion will be observed over the portion of the lung affected. The sounds 
elicited on percussion are practically normal in this stage. 

In the second stage the temperature generally drops one or two de- 
grees, and respiration is performed with much difficulty. The cough is 
frequent and painful. The animal still stands with the forelegs wide 
apart and the elbows turned outwards. If it assumes the recumbent 
position it rests on the sternum. All secretions are more or less sus- 



108 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

pended, particularly the milk in cows. The animal has a haggard 
appearance, and the pulse becomes small and wiry at this period. The 
extremities are hot and cold alternately; the crepitation which was 
present in the first stage is now absent, and no sound on auscultation 
will be heard, except it be a slight wheezing or whistling noise. On 
percussion dullness over the diseased lung is manifested, indicating 
consolidation. The lung has now assumed a characteristic liver-like 
appearance. 

In the third stage, if the disease is going to terminate favorably, the 
cough becomes loose; the animal improves; the appetite returns, and 
the symptoms above detailed rapidly subside. But if, on the other 
hand, resolution is not progressing, the lung substance is broken down, 
is heavy, and will sink in water. In fatal cases the breath has a pecu- 
liar fetid, cadaverous odor, and is taken in short gasps; the horns, 
ears, and extremities become cold and clammy, and the pulse is imper- 
ceptible. On auscultation, when suppuration is taking place and the 
lung structure is breaking down, a bubbling or gurgling crepitation, 
caused by the passage of air through pus, will be heard. 

Treatment.— Good hygienic surroundings and good nursing are essen- 
tial in connection with the medical treatment. The probability of cure 
depends largely on the extent of the lung tissue involved, as well as on 
the intensity of the inflammatory process. In the early stage, when 
the fever is high, give febrifuges. If the pulse be strong and full, 
aconite (Fleming's tincture, 2 to 5 minims every four or five hours) 
may be given for a short time, but should be discontinued as soon as 
the fever begins to abate. Aconite is a valuable drug in the hands of 
the intelligent practitioner, but my experience leads me to believe that 
not infrequently animals are lost by its injudicious use. For in many 
febrile conditions it is positively contraindicated, owing to its action 
upon the heart. In a plethoric animal, with a strong bounding pulse, 
bleeding may be resorted to instead of administering aconite. If the 
bowels are constipated give calomel, one to three drams, which acts as 
a cathartic and a febrifuge. In the second stage diffusible stimulants 
are required, viz: Spirits of ether nit., 2 ounces; spirits ammonia 
aromatic, 1 ounce. Mix and give in gruel three times daily. If the 
above is not at hand give an alcoholic stimulant. Half a pint of brandy 
or whisky may be given in a quart of gruel three times daily. In some 
cases carbonate of ammonia, 2 to 5 drams, has been found beneficial. 
Most practitioners apply counterirritants externally, such as mustard 
plasters, turpentine, and ammonia liniment, or cantharides. 

EMPHYSEMA — HEAVES. 

Emphysema consists of a rupture of the minute air vesicles of the 
lung substance, and may be either inter-lobular or vesicular. There 
is an extreme interference with respiration, inspiration being short and 
expiration prolonged. It is a nonfebrile condition, in which the appe- 



NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 109 

tite is not decreased and the milk secretion is kept up. It may be 
caused by an attack of asthma, or may result from chronic bronchitis. 
The disease can be diagnosed by the marked interference with respira- 
tion. The animal, as a rule, is emaciated, has a staring coat, and is 
hidebound. If percussion is resorted to, the animal's chest will give 
a tympanic, drum-like sound. The normal resonant sound is exagger- 
ated. 

Treatment. — The disease is incurable, and only a palliative form of 
treatment can be carried out. The destruction of the animal is often 
advisable, from a humane as well as from a financial point of view. 

PULMONARY CONGESTION. 

Cattle that are overdriven or overworked are liable to pulmonary 
congestion in an acute form, and sometimes pulmonary apoplexy. In 
such cases the animal should be allowed to rest, and if the weather be 
hot put in a shady place. Give stimulants internally, and apply stim- 
ulating applications to the legs, and bandage. 

HEMOPTYSIS. 

This is a term used to signify bleeding from the lungs. The trouble 
may result from a previous congestion of the lungs, or from a breaking 
down of the lung substance, or from specific disorders. 

Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils and from the mouth. 
The blood is bright red, frothy, and accompanied by a cough, the flow 
being somewhat profuse and intermingled with mucus. It may cease 
of its own accord. Internally haemostatics are indicated, and locally over 
the sides cold applications have a tendency to check the hemorrhage. 
Give the animal a drench composed of 1£ drams of gallic acid dissolved 
in a pint of water. 

ABSCESS OF THE LUNG. 

An abscess of the lung sometimes forms during the course of or sub- 
sequent to certain pulmonary diseases. An animal affected with abscess 
of the lung usually has a protracted, feeble cough, and a general appear- 
ance of emaciation and anaemia. The pulse is feeble and the breath 
foul. An offensive discharge from the lungs frequently occurs. Per- 
cussion and auscultation will aid in making a diagnosis in this condi- 
tion. The appetite is poor. Such animals go from bad to worse, and 
their prompt destruction would, as a rule, be to the interest of the 
owner. 

HYDROTHORAX. 

Hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest, is not a disease in itself, but is 
simply a condition where an effusion takes place in the chest cavity, 
and is the result or effect of some disease, mostly pleurisy. This con- 



110 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

dition can be easily diagnosed by physical signs. A loss of the respi- 
ratory murmur will be noticed on auscultation, and on percussion dull- 
ness or flatness on a line as high as the effusion has taken place. 
When there is a large amount of effusion present, tapping with the 
trocar and canula is generally resorted to. The proper method of per- 
forming this operation will be found unker the head of Pleurisy. 

PNEUMOTHORAX. 

An accumulation of gas in the pleural sac is known as pneumothorax. 
The presence of air may either result from an injury of the lung or a 
wound communicating from the exterior. The indications for treat- 
ment are to exclude the further entrance of the air into the cavity by 
the closure of the external opening. The air already in the cavity will 
in most cases be absorbed. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



By W. H. HARBAUGH, V. S., Richmond, Va. 



In a work of this kind anything approaching a detailed description 
of the anatomy and physiology of this subject is simply out of the 
question, as the space it would require forbids the attempt; but a few 
of the important points will be noticed so that what follows will be 
better understood. 

The nervous system is the distinguishing feature of animal life; with- 
out it there can be no intelligence, no instinct, no sensibility, no per- 
ception; in fact, existence would be nothing more than vegetable life. 

The senses — touch, taste, sight, hearing, smell — all depend on the 
nervous system. Motion depends on it. A muscle can not contract 
without receiving the stimulus from the nervous system. For example, 
if a nerve passing from a nerve center to a muscle is severed, the par- 
ticular muscle that is supplied by the cut nerve is paralyzed. 

In the living animal the muscle is the power ; but without the stimu- 
lus it receives from the nerves it is powerless. T^e muscle and the 
nerve, in their relationship, may be compared to the powder and the 
match in a blast. The hole drilled into the rock may be packed with 
giant powder, the fuse may be in readiness, but the powder can not 
rend the rock unless the match is applied to the fuse. The nervous 
system originates and conveys the stimulus or impulse which excites 
the muscle. The contraction of the muscle is the source of movement. 

In the description of the blood it is stated that all nutrition and 
all vitality depend on the blood and^ although the nervous matter 
receives its nutrition from the blood, the blood is only capable of 
fulfilling its proper functions by the aid of the nervous system 
Without nervous stimulus the heart can not beat. All the other systems 
in the body are excited and regulated by the nervous system. 

The nervous system, for various reasons, is studied in two divisions, 
but it must be borne in mind that the two divisions are closely con- 
nected one with the other. 

The cerebrospinal division consists of the brain and spinal cord, 
nerves, and ganglia. The nerves of this division convey the impulses 
of motion and sensation, and supply all parts which are under the con- 
Ill 



112 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

trol of the will. For example, the voluntary muscular tissue includes 
all the muscles which act as the will directs. Another example, if 
anything comes in contact with any part of the skin, the impression is 
immediately perceived. All the special senses belong to this division. 

The sympathetic division consists of nerves and ganglia. The muscu- 
lar tissue which acts independently of the will, as, for example, the 
stomach, intestines, womb, blood-vessels, ducts, etc., is called involun- 
tary muscular tissue, and receives nervous stimulus from the sympa- 
thetic division. 

The brain, spinal cord, and the ganglia are the central organs of the 
nervous system. The nerves conduct the nervous influence. The nerves 
terminate differently according to their function. The terminations are 
called end organs. The terminal end organs in the skin and other parts 
endowed with sensation receive the impressions, which are conveyed to 
the brain, where they are appreciated. They are so sensitive that the 
most gentle zephyr is perceived. They are so abundant that the point 
of the finest needle can not pierce the skin without coming in contact 
with them, and the sensation of pain is instantly conveyed to the brain. 
The terminal end organs of the nerves that supply the muscles are 
different, as they give the impulse which is conveyed by the motor 
nerves to the elements which constitute the muscle, and this impulse is 
the excitation which causes the muscle to contract. The terminal end 
organs of the special senses of taste, smell, etc., receive their respect- 
ive impressions, and their respective nerves carry the impressions to 
the brain. 

There are two divisions of nerves, the efferent and the afferent. 

The efferent nerves are those which convey the nervous impulse out- 
ward from the nerve centers, and they are further classified according 
to the function of their respective centers. For example : Motor fibers 
carry the impulse from the nerve center to a muscle to cause contrac- 
tion. Vaso-motor fibers carry the impulse to the muscular tissue in 
the blood vessels, which regulates their caliber. The secretory fibers 
convey the impulse to the cells of the glands, and excite the activity of 
the gland, and its particular product is secreted or evolved, as for in- 
stance, milk in the mammary gland. Inhibitory fibers control or inhibit 
the action of the organ to which they are distributed, as, for instance, 
the heart. 

The afferent nerves are those which convey the impulse to the nerve 
centers. All the sensory nerves belong to this division. 

Nerve centers may be considered as a collection or group of nerve 
cells. Both the cerebro- spinal and the sympathetic divisions have nerve 
centers. The centers derive their special names from their functions. 
The brain, as a matter of course, is the great center of the nervous sys- 
tem, as it is the center of intelligence and perception. The centers of 
all the special senses, as well as the centers of various functions, are 
located in different parts of the brain. Nerve centers also exist in the 



DISEASES OP THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 113 

spinal cord, and in connection with the sympathetic system. Nerve 
centers are classed as the automatic and the reflex centers, but these 
two divisions are subdivided again according to the function of each 
respective center of either of the great divisions. The action of an 
automatic center occurs independent of any influence external to the 
center itself. To illustrate the action of the reflex centers, the familiar 
example of a piece of food accidentally getting into the larynx (or into 
the windpipe, as it is popularly termed) may be considered. Nature has 
endowed the mucous membrane — the internal surface — of the larynx with 
the most exquisite sensitiveness, which is due to the terminal end organs 
in the membrane being connected by means of their sensory nerves 
with a nerve center. No sooner does the particle of food drop into the 
larynx than the terminal end organs receive the extraordinary irrita- 
tion it causes, and the impression is conveyed by the fibers of the sen- 
sory, or afferent nerve, -to a nerve center in the brain, and from the cen- 
ter the nervous impulse is sent by means of the fibers of the motor, or 
efferent nerves, to the various muscles, the contraction of which causes 
the forcible expulsion of air from the lungs, which dislodges and ejects 
from the larynx the offending particle of food. For another example 
the sensation of pain will suffice. If a finger comes in contact with fire 
the sensation of pain is received by the end organs of the sensory fibers 
in the skin of the finger, and conveyed to the brain by the sensory or 
afferent fibers, and there is instantly carried by the motor or efferent 
fibers to the muscles of the arm the impulse which causes the muscles 
to snatch the finger from the fire. 

A nerve is a cord consisting of a certain number of fibers, inclosed in 
a sheath of connective tissue. This sheath contains the blood-vessels 
from which the nerve derives its nutrition. Large nerves are composed 
of bundles of smaller ones, each of the smaller contained in its respective 
sheath. Nerves divide and subdivide, sending off branches, which 
ramify in all parts of the body, and, as they near their terminations, 
they contain but one or two fibers. 

Nerves are the conductors of the nerve current, or impulse. 

The brain and spinal cord are contained within a bony canal, which 
forms a protective covering for them. 

The spinal column consists of a number of bones, especially articulated 
or joined one to the other, extending from the head to the tail. Through 
each one of these bones the spinal canal is continued. 

The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, lodged within the spinal canal, is 
continuous with the brain anteriorly, and terminates in a point in the 
sacrum (that part of the spinal column which immediately precedes the 
tail). The spinal cord is not of uniform size, it being considerably larger 
at the part covered by the last two bones of the neck and the first two 
bones of the back than it is immediately before or after this enlarge- 
ment. It is again enlarged at the part covered by the bones in the 
region of the loins. 

24697 8 



114 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Along its entire length rim two fissures, one above and the other be- 
low, exactly in the middle line, nearly dividing the cord in two lateral 
halves. The cord is white externally and gray internally. Between 
each two of the bones forming the spinal column the cord gives off a 
pair of nerves, one nerve emerging from either side of the column. These 
nerves (the spinal nerve) arise from the cord by two roots; the superior 
root contains sensory fibers, and the inferior root gives the motor 
fibers. The union of these roots forms a common nerve, which soon 
divides into two branches, containing motor and sensory fibers; the 
superior branch to supply the muscles and skin above, and the inferior 
branch to supply the parts below, including fibers to form the sympa- 
thetic division. The spinal cord conducts nervous impressions to the 
brain and impulses from the brain, and is therefore a conductor of 
both afferent and efferent currents. It also contains nerve centers, both 
reflex and automatic. 

The fibers that convey motor impulses decussate or cross from one 
side to the other in the part of the brain called the medulla oblongata; 
therefore a motor impulse going from the right side of the brain crosses 
over to the left side in the medulla oblongata and is carried down the 
left side of the spinal cord; and in like manner, a motor impulse from 
the left side of the brain is carried down the right side of the spinal 
cord. 

The nerves that convey sensory impressions go immediately to the 
opposite side of the spinal cord; therefore, an impression of pain re- 
ceived on the left hind leg, or any part of the left side of the body, is 
conveyed by the sensory nerve fibers to the spinal cord and passes over 
to the right side, and is conveyed to the brain by fibers on the right 
side of the spinal cord. Thus it follows that if a lateral half of the 
spinal cord be cut, all parts posterior to the cut on the same side will 
be paralyzed, and all parts on the side opposite to the cut will be de- 
prived of sensation. 

The weight of the spinal cord in a cow of average size is estimated 
to be 1% ounces. The spinal canal is continuous anteriorly with the 
cranial cavity. 

The cranial cavity, formed by bones of the head, is irregular in shape, 
and contains the brain or encephalon. 

The brain is continuous with the spinal cord; there is nothing to 
mark the place where one leaves off and the other begins. Looking at 
the external surface of the brain, on its superior aspect, the larger 
mass — the cerebrum — is seen to be divided by a longitudinal fissure in 
the median line into two equal parts, called the cerebral hemispheres, 
behind which is a smaller mass called the cerebellum, resting on the 
part called the medulla oblongata, which is continuous with the spinal 
cord. On the under surface of the brain, between the medulla oblongata 
and the cerebral hemispheres, there is a prominent part called the pons 
Varolii, which consists of transverse fibers running across from one 



DISEASES OF THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM. 115 

side of the cerebellum to the other. Anterior to the pons Varolii are 
two white bundles — the crura cerebri. Their continuation with the 
medulla oblongata is covered by the pons Varolii; anteriorly they run 
into the cerebral hemispheres. At the anterior part of the fissure which 
separates the crura cerebri is the pituitary gland and the tuber cinereum. 
From the under surface of each of the cerebral hemispheres proceeds 
anteriorly an appendage called the olfactory lobe. 

The arrangement of the gray and white substances of the brain is, to 
a great extent, the reverse of that of the spinal cord, the gray being 
external and the white internal, except as regards the medulla ob- 
longata, in which the gray matter forms centers in its substance. 

The average weight of the brain in cattle as compared to the weight 
of the entire body, is estimated as 1 to 860 ; or, in other words, if the 
weight of the animal be 860 pounds, the weight of the brain will be 1 
pound. 

The cranial nerves are given off by the brain; they are in pairs, as 
follows : (1) Olfactory — the nerves of the special sense of smell. (2) 
Optic — the nerves of the special sense of sight. (3) Oculo-motor — sup- 
ply impulse to all the muscles which move the eyeball, except three. 
(4) Pathetici — motor nerve to the muscle which rotates the eyeball in- 
ward and upward. (5) Trifacial — nerves of various functions. They 
are in three divisions and each division has numerous branches. The 
ophthalmic division supplies sensation to the eye and forehead. The 
superior maxillary division supplies sensation to the skin of the face, to 
the membrane within the nose, and gives to the teeth in the upper jaw 
their sensitiveness. The inferior maxillary division supplies sensation 
to the teeth in the lower jaw, to the tongue, mouth, and the skin over 
the lower jaw. Some of the fibers of this pair aid in supplying the spe- 
cial sense of taste. This pair also supplies motor fibers to the muscles 
which move the jaw in the act of mastication. (6) Abducentes — motor 
nerve to the muscle which turns the eyeball outward. (7) Facial — sup- 
plies motor impulses to various muscles about the head. (8) Auditory — 
the nerves of the special sense of hearing. (9) Glossopharyngeal — 
contains motor and sensory fibers to the tongue and pharynx. It also 
supplies fibers to aid in the special sense of taste. (10) Pneumogas- 
tric — sends fibers to the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, eso- 
phagus, stomach, heart, and many other parts. Its functions are 
numerous and important, being both motor and sensory. A branch 
gives to the mucous membrane of the larynx its extraordinary sensi- 
tiveness, while another branch supplies motor impulse to the muscles 
of the larynx. Another branch is the inhibitory nerve of the heart. 
Other branches are thought to participate in exciting the production of 
the gastric juice and the bile. The pneumogastric is connected at dif- 
ferent parts with the sympathetic division. (11) Spinal accessory — 
motor nerves, accessory to the pneumogastric. (12) Hypoglossal — motor 
nerves of the tongue, and some fibers to a few other muscles. 



116 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

The foregoing review of the cranial nerves and their functions, brief 
as it is, will give a superficial idea of the uses of the nervous system 
and the magnitude of its importance. 

The meninges are the membranes, three in number, which envelop 
the brain and spinal cord, and separate them from the bones which 
form the walls of the cranial cavity and spinal canal. These mem- 
branes are called the dura mater, external; the arachnoid, middle; 
and the pia mater, internal. 

The dura mater is composed of very strong and dense tissue. By its 
external surface it adheres more or less closely to the bones which form 
the walls of the cranial cavity and is continued throughout the whole 
length of the spinal canal, but does not adhere to the bones of the 
spinal canal to the same extent as in the cranial cavity. 

The arachnoid is a serous membrane, and, like all serous membranes, 
has two layers, which form a closed sack. The external layer is in con- 
tact with the dura mater, and the internal layer is in contact with the 
pia mater. The inner surfaces of the arachnoid (the interior of the 
sack) are in contact, and are kept moist by the exudation of serum. In 
the cranial cavity the external layer is not closely attached to the dura 
mater, but in the spinal canal they are closely united. 

The pia mater, which is in direct contact with the brain and spinal 
cord, is a very thin, delicate membrane, having in its structure many 
blood vessels and small nerves. This membrane, being intimately at- 
tached to the nervous matter of the brain and spinal cord, follows all 
the convolutions, dipping down into the various fissures and inequalities. 
The arachnoid does not dip into the inequalities, and consequently 
spaces are left between it and the pia mater. These spaces are filled 
with a fluid called the subarachnoid fluid, in which the brain and spinal 
cord may be said to be immersed. This fluid is of vast importance, 
in so far as it, to a great extent, prevents concussion to the nervous 
matter of the brain and cord. 

The sympathetic, also called the ganglionic, division of the nervous 
system consists of two chains of ganglia, reaching from the head to 
the tail, situated beneath the spinal column, one on either side. The 
presence of the ganglia or enlargements on the cords give them their 
chain-like appearance. 

As previously remarked, the sympathetic nerves are closely connected 
with the cerebro-spinal nerves. In fact, the center for the sympathetic 
system is located in that part of the brain called the medulla oblongata, 
but the sympathetic nerves are not under the control of the will. 
Afferent nerves come from the cerebro-spinal system, as pointed out 
when describing the spinal nerves. Efferent nerves go from the ganglia 
(or nerve centers) to all the blood vessels, various organs in the neck, 
chest, abdomen, etc. The ganglia belonging to the sympathetic system 
are numerous, and it is thought by some physiologists that they par- 
ticipate in both automatic and reflex acts. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 117 

ENCEPHALITIS — STAGGERS. 

Inflammation of the brain and its membranes is technically termed 
encephalitis, but owing to various symptoms, which no doubt depend 
much on the particular part affected, the disease is known by different 
names, such as staggers, stomach staggers, mad staggers, sleepy stag- 
gers, coma, frenzy, etc. 

Inflammation of the nervous matter comprising the brain, without in- 
volving the membranes, is a rare disease in cattle, so much so that few 
authorities notice it as a distinct affection, and then only to point out 
the fact that it is discovered by post-mortem examination. There are 
no symptoms exhibited by which it may be positively distinguished 
from encephalitis — the disease involving the membranes as well as the 
brain — and therefore it will be included in this description. 

Causes. — Severe blows on the head with a hard object, or the head 
coming violently in contact with the ground or other hard substance 
in a fall, may be followed by encephalitis. Irritation caused by tumors 
in the brain may produce inflammation. Food containing deleterious 
matters, for example, ergot (see Plate v) and other fungi which con- 
tain a narcotic principle, is the most frequent cause of this affection, 
and hence it is often called " grass staggers " and " stomach staggers." 
In many localities certain plants have the reputation of causing stag- 
gers. As, for instance, "Elliott's Botany of South Carolina and 
Georgia," edition of 1821, says: " Atamasco — stagger-grass. Gener- 
ally supposed to be poisonous to cattle and produces the disease in 
calves called staggers." The writer can not say that this particular 
plant (Atamasco Lily— Amaryllis atamasco, L.) produces the disease, 
but he quotes the supposition to add strength to the point that it is 
generally believed that certain plants do cause it. European authors 
describe a variety of the disease " arising from the consumption of the 
refuse of distilleries." When the disease is not caused by direct vio- 
lence the quality of the food should be suspected. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary much, but a careful observer will 
detect a trouble connected with the nervous system without much un- 
certainty. The first signs may be those of frenzy, but generally at the 
start the animal is dull and sleepy, with little or no inclination to 
move about ; the head may be pressed against the wall or fence and 
the legs kept moving, as if the animal were endeavoring to walk through 
the obstruction j the body, especially the hind part, may be leaned 
against the side of the stall or stable, as if for support. The bowels 
are constipated; the urine, when passed, is small in quantity and 
darker in color than natural. There may be trembling and even 
spasms of muscles in different parts. In the dull stage the animal may 
breathe less frequently than natural, and each breath may be accom- 
panied with a snoring-like sound. The pulse may be large and less fre- 
quent than normal. If suddenly aroused from the drowsy state the 



118 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

beast appears startled and stares wildly. When moving about the an- 
imal may stagger, the hindquarters swaying from side to side. 

When the delirium ensues the cow is commonly said to be mad. She 
may bellow, stamp her feet, run about wildly, grate the teeth, froth at 
the mouth. If she is confined in the stable, she rears and plunges; 
the convulsions are so violent in many instances that it is really dan- 
gerous for one to attempt to render aid. The body may be covered 
with perspiration. She may fall; the muscles twitch and jerk; often 
the head is raised and then dashed against the ground until blood 
issues from the nose and mouth ; the eyes may be bloodshot and sight- 
less; the limbs stiff and outstretched, or they may be kicked about 
recklessly; the head may be drawn back and the tail drawn up; the 
urine maybe squirted out in spurts; often the "washer" (membrane 
nictitans) is forced over the eye. When the convulsions cease they 
may be followed by a period of quiet unconsciousness — coma — which is 
more or less prolonged, when the animal may gradually regain con- 
sciousness, get up on its feet, and perhaps quietly partake of food, if 
there be any within reach, while at other times it arises with much dif- 
ficulty and staggers blindly about the stall or field. 

It must be remembered that all the foregoing symptoms are not 
always seen in the same case. In those cases usually designated sleepy 
staggers the general symptoms of drowsiness are presented, while in 
other cases the symptoms of frenzy cause the affection to be called mad 
staggers. In other cases, when the spinal cord and its membranes are 
more or less involved, there are symptoms of paralysis, swaying of the 
hindquarters, inability to rise, etc. 

The various symptoms increase in frequency and intensity until they 
end in denth, which is almost invariably Ihe result of an attack of en- 
cephalitis in cattle. 

It is well to remark that when the disease follows injuries to the 
head, the symptoms may not be manifested until two or three days (or 
longer) after the accident. 

Treatment. — For reasons which are obvious from the description of 
the symptoms, treatment of this disease is anything but satisfactory. 
Recoveries are rare in spite of careful scientific attention, even in those 
cases which are under the most favorable circumstances. To be of any 
service whatever the treatment must be prompt and begin with the 
disease. In the early stage the pulse is large, and in most cases will 
admit of bleeding. Eight or nine quarts of blood should be taken from 
the jugular vein. This should be followed immediately by a purgative, 
the following, for a cow of average size: Epsom salts, 24 ounces; pul- 
verized gamboge, £ ounce; croton oil, 20 drops; warm water, 3 quarts. 
Mix all together and give at once, as a drench. 

About 2 quarts of warm water or warm soapsuds should be injected 
with a syringe into the rectum (last gut) every three or four hours. It 
is best to keep the animal in a quiet, sheltered place, where it will be 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 119 

free from noise or other cause of excitement. All the cold water tlie 
animal will drink should be allowed, but food must be withheld, except 
bran slops occasionally in small quantities, or grass, if in season, which 
may be cut and carried fresh to the patient. 

During the convulsions all possible efforts should be made to prevent 
the animal injuring itself; the head should be held down on the ground 
and straw kept under it. Cold water may be continuously poured on 
the head, or bags filled with ice broken in small pieces may be applied 
to the head. Different authors recommend different remedies to allay 
the convulsions, but for two reasons it will be found extremely difficult 
to administer medicines during the convulsions: (1) While the animal 
is unconscious the power to swallow is lost, and therefore the medicine 
is more liable to go down the windpipe to the lungs than it is to go to 
the paunch. (2) The convulsions are often so violent that it would be 
utterly useless to attempt to drench the animal. And furthermore it 
must be borne in mind that during this stage the functions of digestion 
and absorption are suspended, and as a consequence the medicine (pro- 
vided it finds its way to the paunch) is likely to remain there unab- 
sorbed and therefore useless. 

A blistering compound, composed of mustard, 1 ounce; pulverized 
cantharides, one-half ounce; hot water, 4 ounces, well mixed together, 
may be rubbed in over the loins, along the spine, and back of the head 
on each side of the neck. This is occasionally attended with beneficial 
effect, and especially so in those cases when paralysis is present. 

If the purgative acts, and the animal shows signs of improvement in 
the course of two or three days, 2 drams of iodide of potassium may be 
given every night and morning, dissolved in a half bucketful of drink- 
ing water, if the animal will drink it, or it may be dissolved in a half 
pint of water and given as a drench. Great care must be observed in 
regard to the food, which should be nutritive but not coarse, and at 
first in small quantities, gradually increased as the patient improves. 
After some progress is made towards recovery 1£ drams of pulverized 
nux vomica may be given twice a day, added to the iodide of potassium 
drench. This should be administered so long as a staggering gait con- 
tinues. 

In those rare cases when recovery takes place, it is only partial as a 
rule, as there is generally a sequel which remains, such as partial pa- 
ralysis; however, this is but a slight drawback in cattle, because when 
it is seen to persist, the medicine should be stopped and the animal 
fattened for butchering. 

Post-mortem examinations discover congestion of the brain, and its 
membranes. The pia mater (the vascular membrane) is most congested. 
In those cases which have exhibited much paralysis before death, the 
pia mater of the cord is congested in the lumbar region (loins). When 
the disease has been caused by injury to the head the congestion and 
extravasated blood may be found inside of the cavity in the location 



120 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

corresponding to the place where the injury was inflicted externally. 
In some cases pus is also discovered. It remains to be said that in all 
animals that have died from this affection the lungs are found very 
much congested. This leads the nonprofessional to suppose that the 
disease was a lung affection, but in fact it is only a natural consequence 
when death ensues from brain disease. 

APOPLEXY. 

That form of congestion of the brain known as parturient apoplexy, 
which is so frequently associated with the period of calving, is described 
in another part of this work. (See Parturient Apoplexy, p. 247.) 

Cerebral apoplexy, not connected with parturition, is a rare disease 
among cattle. However, it may be due to degeneration and consequent 
rupture of a blood-vessel in the brain ; the pressure of the blood which 
escapes from the ruptured vessel upon the nervous substance causes 
the alarming symptoms. 

The attack is sudden, the animal iu most cases falling as if hit on the 
head with an ax. Convulsions similar to those described as symptoms of 
encephalitis may ensue, or the unconsciousness may not be accompanied 
with any movements of the head or limbs; the eyes are open and 
blindly staring, the mouth frothy, the body cold; the breathing may be 
loud or snoring, the pulse frequent and small. There may be remis- 
sions in the severity of the symptoms, but the pressure from the con- 
tinued escape of blood soon causes death. 

There is described a form of congestive apoplexy, affecting cattle 
which are in a plethoric condition. The congestion, or superabundant 
quantity of blood in the vessels of the brain, may be followed by rup- 
ture of the vessels. It is said to occur mostly in hot weather. In this 
variety the symptoms given are somewhat similar to those exhibited 
when the affection is due to degeneration of the blood vessels, but 
not so violent; the animal may show premonitory signs, such as dull- 
ness, staggering, and may only fall to the knees, the muzzle resting 
on the ground. 

In such cases bleeding should be resorted to immediately, and when 
the power of swallowing is not lost purgatives should be administered. 
Cold applications to the head, and the general treatment recommended 
for encephalitis are indicated. 

CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Severe blows on the head, striking the head against some hard ob- 
ject while running, or falling on the head, may cause concussion of the 
brain. The injury may fracture bones of the cranium and produce com- 
pression of the brain. 

The symptoms vary according to the severity of the concussion. After 
receiving the injury the animal may lie prostrate, entirely unconscious 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 121 

of all surroundings, with complete loss of sensation and power; how- 
ever, there may be some slight convulsive movements, hut they am 
without any effort of the will. 

Death may quickly follow the injury; or, if the injury has not been 
very serious, recovery may take place in a comparatively short time ; or 
the animal may linger in a more or less unconscious state for a consid- 
erable time, or there may be a partial recovery from the injury, followed 
within a few days by encephalitis. 

The injury which produces concussion of the brain may at the same 
time fracture one or more of the bones of the cranium. The fracture 
may be simple — a crack in the bone without depression, or the broken 
bone may be depressed, the pressure on the brain substance constitut- 
ing compression of the brain. The first step in the treatment of com- 
pression of the brain from the latter cause is to elevate the depressed 
bone, which in some cases may be done with a thin but strong piece of 
steel, like a knife blade. In many cases it is necessary to remove a 
portion of bone with a trephine in order to be able to raise the depressed 
part. Such cases require the skill of an expert veterinarian, but un- 
less the animal is a very valuable one it should be butchered as soon as 
possible after the accident, and not allowed to linger until the meat 
becomes unfit for consumption. 

Compression of the brain may result from an injury without fracture 
of a bone. A blow on the head may rupture a blood-vessel within the 
cranial cavity, and the blood escaping therefrom (either on the surface 
of the brain or into the structure of the brain) produces compression 
of the brain substance. Or the injury may cause infl £» mmation, the 
result of which may be compression due to the formation of pus. 

Compression from the escape of blood maybe suspected when the in- 
sensibility continues. But when due to the formation of pus the animal 
partially recovers, and after three or four days have elapsed becomes 
again unconscious. 

In concussion of the brain, during the first stage, when the surface 
of the body is cold, cover the body and legs with warm blankets. It is 
useless to attempt to administer medicines while the animal is insensible 
and can not swallow. Cold water or crushed ice should bs applied to 
the head, and when consciousness returns the purgative drench as ad- 
vised for encephalitis should be administered. The animal should be 
assisted to its feet and put in a comfortable place, free from light and 
noise. Only small quantities of food, in the form of bran slops or grass, 
should be given for some time. Bleeding should not be performed 
unless the case runs into encephalitis, when the general treatment ad- 
vised under that head may be followed. 

EPILEPSY. 

This affection is characterized by the onset of sudden convulsions. 
The animal may appear to be in a fair state of health, as a general 



122 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

thing, but at any time, in the stable or in the field, it may have an 
attack, stagger, fall, and violent convulsions ensue; the urine and dung 
may be voided involuntarily during the fit, and the breathiug may be of 
that snoring description called stertorous. Epilepsy must not be con- 
founded with vertigo — the fainting which is an effect of heart troubles. 

The exact cause or causes of epilepsy in the majority of cases are 
unknown. Post-mortem examinations, in many instances, have failed 
to discover any lesion in connection with the brain or nervous system ; 
while in other instances disease of the brain has been found in the form 
of thickening of the membranes, abscesses and tumors; and in some 
cases the affection has been manifested in connection with a diseased 
condition of the blood. The cause has also been traced to reflex irri- 
tation, due to teething, worms, and chronic indigestion. 

Treatment. — When the affection is due to the last-named causes 
treatment may be successful if the cause is removed. If there are 
symptoms of worms or of indigestion, follow the general treatment 
advised for those troubles under their proper heads. If due to irrita- 
tation caused by teething, the inflamed gums must be lanced. Exami- 
nation of the mouth often develops the fact that one of the temporary 
teeth causes much irritation by remaining unshed, and thereby inter- 
fering with the growth of a permanent tooth. The offending tooth 
should be extracted. When the cause of epilepsy can not be dis- 
covered, it must be confessed that there is no prospect of a cure in such 
cases. However, some benefit may be expected from the occasional 
administration of a purgative dose of medicine. A pound of Epsom 
salts dissolved in a quart of warm water, for a cow of average size, 
may be given as a drench once or twice a month. In addition to the 
purgative, 4 drams of bromide of potassium, dissolved in the drinking 
water, three times a day, has proved very beneficial in some cases. 

SUNSTROKE — PROSTRATION FROM HEAT. 

Owing to the fact that cattle are seldom put to work at which they 
would have to undergo severe exertion, especially in collars, they are 
not frequently prostrated by the extreme heat of the summer months. 
When atpasture they select the coolest places in the shade of trees, etc., 
when the heat becomes oppressive, and thereby avoid, as much as 
possible, the effects of it. But nevertheless cases are not uncommon 
when cattle suffer from the so-called sunstroke. 

Cattle that have been kept up for the purpose of fattening, when 
driven some distance in very hot weather, are the most liable to be 
prostrated, but it must be remembered that it is not really necessary 
for the animal to be exposed to the rays of the sun, as those confined 
iu hot, close places may suffer. This often happens in shipping, when 
they are crowded together in cars. 

Symptoms. — The premonitory signs are those of exhaustion — dullness, 
panting, frothing at the mouth, tongue hanging out, irregular gait, un- 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 123 

easiness, palpitation, when, if tlie circumstances which tend to the 
prostration are not mitigated, the animal staggers or sways from side to 
side, falls, struggles for awhile, and then gradually becomes quiet, or 
the struggles may continue, with repeated but ineffectual efforts to 
regain a standing position. In serious cases the attack may be very 
sudden, unconsciousness occurring without any distressing premonitory 
symptoms. The less serious form is known to the colored cattle drivers 
as "overhet" (overheated). 

Treatment. — At first, when not very serious, removal to a quiet 
sheltered place, with a few days on a reduced diet, is all that need be 
done. When the animal has fallen, apply cold water or ice to the head; 
rub the body and limbs with cloths or wisps of straw, and continue the 
rubbing for a considerable time. If the power of swallowing is not lost 
(which may be ascertained by pouring a little cold water into the 
mouth), give 3 drams of liquor ammonia fort., diluted with a quart of 
cold water. Be very careful in drenching the animal when lying down. 
Eepeat the drench in a half hour, and an hour after the first one has 
been given. Instead of the ammonia, a drench composed of 3 ounces 
of spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water may be given, if more con- 
venient, but in all cases the ammonia drench is preferable. If uncon- 
sciousness continues, so that a drench can not be administered, the 
same quantity of ammonia and water may be injected with a syringe 
into the rectum. The popular aqua ammonia, commonly called " harts- 
horn," will do as well as the liquor ammonia fort., but as it is weaker 
than the latter, the dose for a cow is about one and a half ounce, which 
should be diluted with a quart of water before it is given »d the animal, 
either as a drench or an enema. When ammonia can not be obtained 
quickly, 2 ounces of oil of turpentine (spirits of turpentine), shaken with 
a pint of milk, may be injected into the rectum, and will act beneficially 
until the ammonia is procured. 

As soon as the animal is able to rise, it should be assisted and 
moved to the nearest shelter. All the cold water it will drink should be 
allowed. The ammonia or spirits of nitrous ether drench should be 
administered every three hours, so long as there is much failure of 
strength. The diet should be limited for several days; bran slops and 
a little grass. When signs of returning strength are presented, 12 
ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in a quart of warm water may be given 
in those cases which have been down and unconscious, but do not give 
it while much weakness remains, which may be for several days after 
the attack. It is hardly necessary to mention that when an animal is 
suffering from heat prostration, bleeding should not be resorted to as 
a remedial measure. The writer is well aware of the fact that they are 
often slaughtered by butchers to save further trouble and probable loss. 

INJURIES TO THE SPINAL, CORD. 

The spinal cord is liable to concussion from blows and falls, and 
paralysis, to a greater or less extent, may be the result. Fracture, with 



124 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

displacement of the bones (vertebrae) which form the spinal column, 
by compressing the spinal cord produces paralysis, which varies in its 
effect according to the part of the cord that is compressed. If the 
fracture is above the middle of the neck death soon follows, as commu- 
nication between the brain and diaphragm — the essential muscle of 
inspiration — is stopped. The phrenic nerve, which supplies the dia- 
phragm with motor impulse, is formed by the union of spinal nerves 
below the middle of the neck, and when the cordis compressed between 
the origin of this nerve and the brain the diaphragm is paralyzed and 
death must result. When the fracture is farther down in the neck, 
posterior to the origin of the phrenic nerve, the breathing continues, 
but there is paralysis in all parts posterior to the fracture, including the 
fore and hind legs. When the fracture is in the region of the loins the 
hind legs are paralyzed, but the fore legs are not. If the fracture is in 
the sacrum (the division of the spinal column between the loins and the 
tail) the tail alone is paralyzed. 

As a matter of course, when the back is broken there is no remedy; 
the animal should be bled to death and converted into meat at once. 
The animal not being able to rise after the accident, together with the 
fact that sensation is lost, as evidenced by sticking a pin into the para- 
lyzed parts, should decide the question. 

PARALYSIS. 

Paralysis, or loss of motion in a part, may be due to a lesion of the 
brain, of the spinal cord, or of a nerve. It may also be caused by reflex 
irritation. When the paralysis affects both sides of the body, posterior 
to a point, it is further designated by the technical name of paraplegia. 
When one side of the body (a lateral half) is paralyzed, the technical 
term hemiplegia is applied to the affection. When paralysis is caused 
by a lesion of a nerve, the paralysis is confined to the particular part 
supplied by the affected nerve. 

As already pointed out, paralysis may be due to concussion of the 
spine; fracture of a bone of the spinal column with consequent com- 
pression of the spinal cord; concussion of the brain; compression of the 
brain. An injury to one side of the brain may produce paralysis of 
the same side of the head, and of the opposite side of the body hemi- 
plegia. Paralysis may occur in connection with parturient apoplexy, 
lead poisoning, ergotism, etc. 

Paraplegia, like other diseases, has been traced to moldy food. In one 
outbreak on record, complete paralysis of the posterior parts of the 
bodies of seven oxen was attributed to this cause. Eeflex paraplegia, 
associated with indigestion and impaction of the rumen, is recognized 
by practitioners. This is usually a mild form, and generally passes 
away in a few days, especially when the cause — indigestion, impaction 
of the rumen — responds to proper treatment. Cows heavy with calf 
are sometimes affected with a form of paraplegia, which usually at- 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 125 

tacks them from about a month to a few days before calving. Appar- 
ently they are in good health in every respect except the inability to 
stand up, on account of the paralysis of the hind quarters. This form 
is generally attributed to compression of the nerves (and probably the 
vessels to some extent) of the hind parts by the enlarged condition of 
the womb. As a rule the animal recovers after calving, and requires 
only general care, such as good bedding and regular diet, and if the 
bowels become constipated at any time two quarts of warm soapsuds 
should be injected into the rectum occasionally. If the enemas are not 
sufficient to keep the bowels in proper condition, a half pound of Epsom 
salts dissolved in a quart of warm water may be given as a drench. 
If the cow desires to shift her position from one side to the other nec- 
essary assistance should be given. If the paralysis continues for 
several days after the calf is born the cow should have a purgative — 
1 pound of Epsom salts dissolved in a quart of warm water; also 1£ 
drams of pulverized mix vomica, every night and morning, on the food,, 
if she will eat it, or with some water as a drench. The blistering com- 
pound recommended in the treatment of encephalitis may be rubbed 
well over the loins. 

The cow is occasionally attacked with a form of paralysis after calv- 
ing not connected with parturient apoplexy. It may be associated 
with inflammation of the womb, and some authorities say that it is 
caused by injuries to nerves while calving. One or both hind legs may 
be affected, or more or less of the body may be involved. The treat- 
ment is similar to that for the variety occuring before parturition, viz., 
purgatives, mix vomica, enemas, blistering the loins, and the general 
care recommended for the former affection. It is sometimes necessary 
to apply a red hot iron in lines over the loins, but it is best to have a 
veterinarian perform the operation. 

The treatment for the form of paralysis associated with indigestion 
or impaction of the rumen (paunch) is much the same as in the forego- 
ing cases; but when the paunch is overloaded the purgative should 
be more drastic. The following compound is perhaps as good as any: 
1 pound of Epsom salts; £ pound common salt; one ounce of pulverized 
gamboge; 1 ounce of pulverized ginger. These ingredients must be 
well stirred or shaken with about 6 pints of warm water. The enema of 
warm soapsuds should be thrown into the rectum at least every half 
hour. If the bowels do not respond to the purgative within twenty-four 
hours another pound of Epsom salts may be administered, dissolved in 
a quart of warm water. After the bowels respond to the purgative, and 
especially in those cases when the gait remains unsteady for a few days, 
give the following: pulverized nux vomica, 4 ounces; bicarbonate of 
soda, 20 ounces ; mix and make 16 powders. Give one every night and 
morning. It is often necessary to unload an engorged paunch by an 
operation called rumenotony, for the description of which, and for fuller 
particulars of the treatment of indigestion and impaction of the rumen, 



126 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the reader is referred to the articles on those subjects, under their 
proper heads. (See p. 31.) 

There are instances when cows will persist in lying down (in spite of 
all efforts that are made to compel tliein to stand up), when it can not 
really be said that they are paralyzed. They have sensation in all 
parts; they can move all their feet; they can change their position; 
and in fact every function seems to be normally performed, but they 
obstinately refuse to rise, or even make an effort to do so. Cases of 
this kind have been slaughtered, as it was an utter impossibility to get 
the animal on its feet. However, there are instances when a cow after 
refusing to rise when all other means had been tried, quickly jumped 
to her feet and showed fright when her inveterate enemy, a dog, was 
induced to torment her. 

Hemiplegia, or paralysis of one side of the body, is a rare affection in 
cattle. Prof. Williams records a case in his " Veterinary Medicine w 
as follows : 

In the case of the cow the attack was of an acute kind. The animal was grazing 
in a field with a lot of others, and was left quite well at milking time in the morn- 
ing. The field being some distance from the house it was not seen again before 
evening. It was then found prostrate on the ground, lying upon its left side, and 
was unable to rise. When I saw it I observed the following symptoms : The left ear 
was pendulous, left eyelid drooping and closed, the eye squinted outwards. The 
left cheek hung down, the angle of the mouth was lower than on the opposite side, 
the muscles were loose and flaccid, and the lips drawn to the right side. The tongue 
protruded, and when put into the mouth was drawn to the right side. The neck 
was twisted and the head drawn to the left side. Deglutition was imperfect, but 
the breathing was not especially affected. The superficial blood-vessels of the right 
side were engorged with blood, and stood out prominently all over the trunk and 
neck. The same side was warm, whilst the opposite side was cold, and the hair was 
pin-feathered. In endeavoring to place the animal on a hurdle for the purpose of 
removing it to a shed it was observed that it rolled over from the left to the right 
side, on which side only could it be made to lie. The bowels were constipated and 
the belly tympanitic, the sphincter ani was rather relaxed, the vulva flaccid, and the 
vagina protruding. The animal was quite conscious, but inclined to somnolency. 
It was bled, a purgative administered, and the back was fomented and dressed with 
a strong ammonia liniment. On the following morning it was able to rise, but both 
the legs of the right side remained partially paralyzed for some weeks. The affec- 
tion of the face, however, passed away during the first night, and it was able to par- 
take of food on the following morning. 

The foregoing quotation so fully describes hemiplegia that it is un- 
necessary to add any more to it, unless it is to say that, should the 
reader have a cow with a similar attack, the treatment is about the 
same as described for paraplegia. 

TETANUS — LOCKJAW. 

Cattle are subject to tetanus, but it is a comparatively rare affection 
among this class of animals. The writer practices in a district where 
tetanus is almost as common among horses and mules as any other dis- 
ease, and in fact it occasionally appears as an enzootic among them; 
but it is one of the rarest diseases in cattle he is called to treat. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 127 

Tetanus consists of a continued spasm of the voluntary muscles. The 
spasmodic contraction of the muscles, although persistent, is sometimes 
greater or more severe than the average during the course of the dis- 
ease. The exacerbations, or increase of the violence of ttie spasm, may- 
occur without any cause other than the nature of the disease itself, but 
they are frequently due to noises or the manner of going about the 
animal by those in attendance, and to other causes that excite the 
patient. 

Other technical terms are used to designate the particular forms of 
tetanus, but they only refer to the regions of the body that are involved 
in the spasm. Thus if the muscles of the head, particularly those 
used in mastication (or chewing), are affected, it is called trismus; and 
it is this form which gives rise to the popular name u lockjaw." When 
the muscles of the upper part of the neck and back are affected the 
head and tail are elevated, and the name applied is opisthotonos. If 
the muscles of one side only are affected, the head is drawn to that 
side, and the disease is called tetanus lateralis or pleurosthotonos. If 
the muscles on the lower part of the neck and body are affected, the 
mouth is drawn towards the breast, when the term emprosthotonos is 
applied. In cattle the disease is characterized by the symptoms of 
trismus and opisthotonos combined; the other forms have never been 
met with in the experience of the writer. 

Two varieties of tetanus have been universally recognized : When the 
disease exists in connection with a visible wound, it is called traumatic 
tetanus. When no wound is discoverable the affection is called idio- 
pathic tetanus. The writer is of opinion that these distinctions are 
superfluous, by which he means to infer that in all cases the disease is 
from the same cause. In the great majority of instances there is no 
difficulty in finding a wound, and in many cases more than one wound. 
In the cases called idiopathic one can only say that no wound is dis- 
covered ; one can not say positively that no wound exists. There may 
be a wound in the mouth, or in any part of the intestinal canal. When 
it is considered how small the wound is in the foot from the prick of a 
nail in so many cases followed by lockjaw in the horse, it is not difficult 
to recognize the fact that there may be many small wounds that are 
invisible about an animal. It is a familiar opinion often expressed 
that there is danger in a pin-scratch. One may easily appreciate the fact 
that there may be more small scratches than one on the hide of an ani- 
mal thickly covered with hair, that will defy detection unless the animal 
is shaved. Holding these views, the writer will not differentiate 
between the two varieties, but will describe the disease under the gen- 
eral name, tetanus. It must be understood that the writer has no 
desire to do violence to the opinions of others ; nor does he so strongly 
assert his own opinions merely for the purpose of airing them ; the real 
object is that the most careful examination be made in every instance, 
so that cases will not be classed as idiopathic simply because a casual 
glance over the animal fails to detect a wound. 



128 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Gcmses. — Tetanus has been attributed to many different causes by as 
many different writers, and while some of the theories may appear 
plausible to one observer, to another they seem ridiculous. To refer to 
all the conditions that have been ascribed as causes for this affection is 
a greater task than the writer has desire to attempt. However, a few 
of them will be mentioned, to convey an idea of the diversity of the 
opinions held by those who have written on the subject: Hereditary 
predisposition, bad food, exposure to cold and wet, sudden alterations 
of temperature, excessive fatigue, overdriving, etc. All authorities 
agree on one point, however, and that is, that tetanus is most frequently 
met with in connection with a wound. 

It should be remarked that it is not only large wounds, nor very pain- 
ful wounds, that are followed by tetanus, as the affection is often asso- 
ciated with wounds of the most trivial character. The writer has 
attended cases where the wounds were so small that they were only dis- 
covered after repeated examinations. One case in particular is worthy 
of mention. When first examined, trismus was so pronounced that the 
teeth could not be forced more than a half inch apart. A thorough 
examination failed to find a wound. The next day another examina- 
tion was as fruitless. On the third day a small nodule was felt on the 
skin of the cheek ; the hair was parted, and a little crust or scab picked 
off. The hostler then stated, what had escaped his memory until thus 
reminded, that about a week before, while putting hay in the manger, 
the point of a prong of the fork came in contact with that part, but the 
wound was so slight that it was entirely forgotten. That small sore was 
treated antiseptically, and the animal made a good recovery. The 
writer has not the least doubt that the cause was in that small wound. 

In another instance, after a very careful examination, the case was 
about to be put down among the number of those which are generally 
called idiopathic, when a few hairs on the base of the neck Avere 
observed to be matted together; and on a closer examination of that 
part a small abrasion was found which was treated antiseptically until 
it was healed. The animal was discharged sound in two weeks. 

It is a fact (in the experience of the writer) that large or painful 
wounds are less liable to be followed by tetanus than are the slighter 
injuries, for the reason that the former usually receive attention, while 
the latter are neglected. 

A wound in any part of the body may be followed by tetanus. The 
particular place where a wound is located is of small import so far as 
the cause is concerned, although it is of the greatest importance when 
the treatment is considered, as, for instance, a wound that is located 
internally can not be topically treated. 

Tetanus may ensue within a few days after the infliction of a wound, 
but the attack usually occurs between one and two weeks after the 
injury, when, in many cases, the wound is nearly healed. In instances 
where healing is retarded, the wound remaining open, neglected, or 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 129 

badly treated, the disease may set in at any time. In one case of 
which the writer has knowledge the animal was attacked four months 
after receiving the wound in the foot. 

Operations (as well as accidental wounds) may be followed by teta- 
nus. However, it is not now so common a sequel to operations as it 
formerly was, for the reason that careful veterinarians use antiseptic 
precautions as much as possible. 

It has perhaps followed castration oftener than any other operation, 
due no doubt, in the great majority of instances, to uncleanliness both 
in regard to the instruments used and to the hands of the operator, as 
well as the manner of operating. But of course it may follow the 
operation in some instances when care has been taken in respect to 
cleanliness. In such cases the cause gains access to the wound after 
the operation has been performed. 

In an instance of which the writer has knowledge the ordinary 
operation of tapping for tympany (" wind colic ") was followed by lock- 
jaw. In this case certainly the disease could not have been due to the 
instrument, as it was thoroughly clean and had been immersed in a 
solution of carbolic acid in water (1 to 20) before the operation. It is 
evident that the cause of tetanus must have either been on the skin at 
the time of the puncture, and forced into the wound by the instrument, 
or else it gained access some time afterwards. 

There can be no question that a wound has much to do with the cause 
of tetanus, but nevertheless the most serious or the most trivial wound 
can not in itself produce the affection. Something of a specific nature 
must gain access to the wound for the characteristic symptoms of te- 
tanus to be developed. Long ago, before a germ having this specific 
property was discovered, many scientific veterinarians and physicians 
believed in the infectious nature of the disease. Cases frequently oc- 
curred in the practice of individual members of the profession that left 
no doubt in their minds, and consequently, when it was announced 
that a microbe had been found in wounds of persons suffering with the 
disease, that would cause the affection in animals when inoculated with 
the pus containing the microbes, many points which had been clouded 
in mystery were at once made clear. (See Plate xxix, Fig. 5.) 

Since this discovery in 1884 many successful experiments have been 
performed to verify the fact. The same microbe has been discovered 
in earth, and cultivations made from it and injected into animals have 
produced the disease. It has been found in dirt taken from floors, 
gardens, yards, fields, streets, and animals inoculated with it have 
developed the disease. Hence there is not much doubt at present con- 
cerning the cause of tetanus, although there are still some eminent 
practitioners in both the veterinary and medical professions who refuse 
to receive the results of the numerous experiments as conclusive. 

The evidence so far goes to prove that tetanus is the same disease in 
man and animals, and therefore it is well to bear in mind when attend- 
24697 9 



130 DISEASES OF TATTLE. 

ing an affected animal that the wound may. contain a germ which, if it 
gain access to a sore or an abraded surface on yourself, may cause 
this dreadful disease. 

In summing up the matter it may be said in a very few words that 
there is a well-grounded belief that the specific germs of tetanus find 
their way into a wound or an abrasion, where they obtain favorable 
opportunity for cultivation and increase, and the result of their pres- 
ence is a poisonous chemical product which is absorbed into the system 
and causes tetanus. In those cases called idiopathic, where no wound 
can be found, it does not require a stretch of the imagination to sup- 
pose that a wound or an injury exists somewhere in the alimentary 
canal sufficient to harbor the germs, which may have been taken in 
with the food; and it is even considered possible for the germs to be 
taken in with the air inhaled and to lodge on a denuded surface of the 
respiratory tract. 

In this view of the subject there is nothing to do violence to exist- 
ing knowledge, for it is well known that strychnine in poisonous doses 
acts on the nervous system in the same manner, causing a spasm simi- 
lar to tetanus. 

Cattle lead a quieter life and are less subject to wounds than horses 
and mules, and it may be that they are better able to withstand the 
effects of the germs, and to these reasons may be due the fact that 
tetanus is a rare disease in cattle. 

Symptoms. — In the description of the nervous system it was ex- 
plained that sensory impressions are conducted to the brain by the 
afferent nerves, and the motor impulses are conducted from the nerve 
center to the muscle (to cause contraction) by the efferent nerves. 
Now, in describing the symptoms of tetanus, it is well to point out the 
fact that the motor centers being greatly irritated by the cause of 
tetanus, an extraordinary stimulus or current is sent to all the mus- 
cles, which produces a persistent violent contraction or spasm of the 
muscles. Bearing in mind this fact it is easier to recognize the con- 
tracted state of the muscles, which are hard and resistant, and stand 
out prominently as lumps or cords under the skin, especially about the 
head and neck. 

General sensitiveness is also increased; the afflicted beast is ever on 
the alert, and is startled by the sbghtest noise. A harsh voice often 
brings on an increase in the intensity of the spasm ; a touch of the 
hand, however light, excites fear ; clapping the hands or the crack of a 
whip almost causes the animal to fall. 

The first symptom noticed is usually some stiffness in the manner of 
carrying the head. The muzzle is elevated — "poked out;" the ears 
are also carried stiffly, and moved very little, if any. The haw or 
"washer" (membrana nictitans) is forced over the eye from the inner 
corner, and on account of this strange appearance of the eye, many 
persons who have for the first time seen an animal affected, with lock- 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 131 

jaw, imagine that all the trouble is in the eyes. In fact the writer has 
known of several instances where persons, ignorant of the real cause, 
supposed the animal to be affected with "hooks," and therefore cut out 
what they concluded to be offensive. The animal moves very stiffly, 
the legs are almost rigid, and when walking they are used like sticks. 
When turned the body is kept straight and moves around like a log. 
When standing still the legs are propped out, and, were it not for the 
breathing, the beast might be compared to a wooden horse. The tail 
is elevated and sticks out like a pump handle. The jaws are moved 
very stiffly during the first part of the attack, and there may be grating 
of the teeth or champing so long as they can be moved, but at anytime 
if the hand be placed in the mouth to force the jaws apart, rigidity to 
a greater or less extent will be manifest. The animal will eat as long 
as it is possible to open the jaws wide enough to take anything into 
the mouth. On account of the general stiffuess the urine and dung are 
passed with some difficulty. The pulse is usually hard, but does not 
vary much from normal in other respects, until some time after the 
attack, when it increases very much in frequency. As the disease 
progresses all the symptoms become more pronounced. The haw ex- 
tends further over the eye, and at any time, if the head is forced up by 
the hand, the eye may be entirely hidden as it is drawn back/and the 
haw forced over it. The breathing becomes more rapid and difficult ; 
the nostrils are open to their widest extent, showing the congested 
membranes within the nose; the jaws become more or less sec or locked; 
swallowing, always accomplished with difficulty, becomes almost or 
quite impossible. At times, and especially if the animal is annoyed or 
excited by attendants or noises, the intensity of the spasm is increased 
so as to amount to paroxysms. The animal usually remains on its feet 
as long as possible, but should it get down after the disease is well 
established it is seldom able to rise alone, and in its endeavors to do 
so it struggles convulsively, and as a rule the struggles end in death. 

Treatment. — Tetanus in every instance must be considered a very 
serious affection, but not necessarily always a fatal one. Some cases 
have recovered in spite of the most brutal and ignorant methods of 
treatment; some have recovered without much treatment of any kind; 
and many cases succumb under the treatment of the most eminent prac- 
titioners after every measure prompted by science, humanity, and rea- 
son has been resorted to. Of paramount importance is to recognize the 
affection and begin the treatment before the disease has made much 
advance, for when it is well established the effect is not only harder to 
overcome, but every aid is more difficult to render. 

At the appearance of the first symptoms, when the animal is still 
able to swallow without much difficulty, give the following drench: 
Epsom salts, 10 ounces ; common salt, 10 ounces ; calomel, 2 drams ; pul- 
verized gentian, 1 ounce; warm water, 2 quarts. After the administra- 
tion of the foregoing dose there is to be no more drenching. 



132 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Examine closely for wounds; look well between the claws of the feet, 
search over the body and legs, and even examine the mouth. Note 
well the location of the wounds ; do not neglect the smallest scratch. 
Place the animal in a darkened, quiet stall, where it will be away from 
noises or other cause of excitement. With hot soapsuds and a clean 
rag, thoroughly wash away from the wound (or wounds) all the hard- 
ened discharges, crusts or scabs, so that a fresh and clean sore is pre- 
sented. Then use the following: Bichloride of mercury, 30 grains; 
pure carbolic acid, 1 ounce; water, 1 quart; mix. Pour some of this 
solution on the wound, and with a clean piece of white cotton or muslin 
rub the medicine into all parts of the wound ; be certain that it comes 
in contact with every portion of the wound ; literally scour the wound 
with the cotton and medicine, but do no unnecessary injury. Make 
soaking wet some absorbent cotton and bind it well on the wound. 
Once each day change the dressing; clean the wound with the medi- 
cine, and bind on fresh absorbent cotton soaking wet with it. Treat 
every wound or scratch that you can find on the animal in the same 
manner. If the wound is in the foot, expose it well by cutting away as 
much of the hoof as necessary in order that the medicine may come in 
contact with all of it. Painful wounds about the feet should be poul- 
ticed twice a day with linseed meal for three or four days, but each 
time the poultice is changed the wound should be washed with the 
medicine; and when the poultices are discontinued the wound must be 
dressed with the absorbent cotton and the medicine once a day. Give 
the regular food so long as the animal is able to eat it, but when chew- 
ing and swallowing become very difficult slops made with bran, corn- 
meal and small quantities of linseed meal must be prepared. All the 
cold water the animal will drink must be supplied. The stall must be 
so arranged that the food and water may be placed within easy reach 
of the animal's mouth, as it must be remembered that it can reach 
neither very high nor very low. 

Although putting cattle in slings is not a very satisfactory measure 
under any circumstances, still it may be advisable to have the animal 
in a stall, where arrangements may be made to support it (not suspend) 
in canvas. When an animal affected with lockjaw lies down it is a 
very difficult matter to raise it, as the body and legs are so stiff that 
the beast is not able to help itself, and raising it is something after the 
manner of lifting a heavy body with four sticks stuck into it for legs. 
If the animal becomes very weak the canvas may be arranged so that 
it may rest in the sling. 

Do not allow the patient to be an object of curiosity for the neigh- 
borhood. The person who is attending to the animal's necessities should 
be the only visitor to the stall; and three visits each day, every eight 
hours, will suffice to render all necessary aid. The food, etc., should be 
prepared in time to be carried in at the regular visit. 

The excitement caused by repeatedly drenching the animal would do 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 133 

much more harm than could be overcome by all the medicines you could 
pour into it. Therefore do not attempt it. Dissolve 1 ounce of bromide 
of potassium in every 2 gallons of water the patient will drink. Leave 
a fresh supply of water with the medicine in it before the animal at each 
visit, and secure the bucket so that it can not be overturned. Three 
times a day inject into the rectum 2£ ounces each of the tinctures of 
coniuin and cannabis indica, diluted with 1 pint of warm water. 

Everything must be done in a quiet, orderly manner, so as not to ex- 
cite the patient. Do not pay any attention to the numerous recipes for 
lockjaw advised to be given by different acquaintances. The veteri- 
nary expert, governed by the exigencies of the case, is competent to make 
changes and substitute measures intended to relieve symptoms, but the 
nonprofessional bad best confine himself to an outlined course of treat- 
ment and abide by the result of it. No doubt you will be advised to 
chloroform the animal, or to do one thing or another, to "unlock the 
jaws," etc., but do not follow the advice, as you will only hasten a fatal 
termination ; all such methods have been tried again and again with no 
benefit. In those cases where no wound is found the treatment must 
be the same in all respects, with the exception, of course, that there is 
no wound to treat. But if there has been a recent wound which is 
apparently healed, bathe the scar well with warm water, and if there 
be the slightest sign that it is not entirely healed, use t> e medicine 
on it as advised for the other wounds. 

When improvement is pronounced, the medicine given in the drinking 
water and in the rectum should be gradually discontinued by giving only 
two-thirds of the prescribed quantities of each for a few days, then one- 
half for a few days longer; then the half doses twice a day, until it is 
safe to stop the use of the medicine altogether. But at any time after 
the quantities are decreased if unfavorable symptoms are manifested, 
the original quantities should be given again as long as necessary. The 
treatment prescribed for the wounds should be continued until the 
wounds are healed, and for some time after, if the symptoms of tetanus 
are still presented. 

If the disease is not recognized until after the power of swallowing is 
entirely lost there is little to be accomplished by treatment. It is true 
that nourishing food, such as gruels, milk, etc., may be given in the 
form of enemas, but even if life is prolonged for a short time by this 
means, such cases terminate fatally. 

If it be true that tetanus is due to the effects of a specific germ 
(Bacillus tetani) — and there is not much doubt about it — then a great 
deal may be done to prevent the disease by the antiseptic treatment of 
all wounds. If you perform any surgical operations your hands and 
instruments should be thoroughly cleansed according to antiseptic 
methods, a description of which will be found under its proper head. 
It is a fact that an extremely small percentage of wounds are followed 
by tetanus, but still it is economical in a general sense to properly treat 
wounds. 



134 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

LIGHTNING STROKE — ASPHYXIA ELECTRICA. 

When an animal is struck by lightning the shock is instantaneously 
expended on the nervous system, and as a rule death occurs immedi- 
ately, but when the shock is not fatal animation is suspended to a 
greater or less extent, as evidenced by prostration, unconsciousness, 
and paralysis. 

Symptoms. — When not fatal, the symptoms vary much, according to 
the severity of the shock. The animal usually falls, as from an apo- 
plectic attack, and, as a matter of course, the syrnrjtoms are such as are 
generally manifested in connection with concussion of the brain. The 
muscular system may be completely relaxed; the legs limber; the 
muscles flabby and soft to the touch, or there may be convulsions, 
spasms, and twitching of the muscles. The breathing is generally 
labored, irregular, or interrupted, and slower than normal. 

In most instances the electrical fluid leaves its mark by singeing the 
hair, or by inflicting wounds, burns, or blisters. " Sir B. Brodie tells 
a curious story of two bullocks, pied white and red, which were struck 
in different storms. In both cases the white hairs were consumed, 
while the red ones escaped." 

Treatment. — So long as the beating of the heart is perceptible, the 
endeavor to resuscitate the animal should be continued. Dash cold 
water over the head and body; rub the body and legs; smartly whip 
the body with wet towels or switches. Mustard, mixed with water, 
should be well rubbed over the legs and back of the head on each side 
of the neck. Inject into the rectum 4 drams of liquor ammonia fortis, 
or 1£ ounces of hartshorn diluted with a quart of warm water. Cau- 
tiously hold an uncorked bottle of hartshorn to the nostrils, so that some 
of it is inhaled, but care should be taken that too much is not suddenly 
inhaled. 

In desperate cases, artificial respiration should be tried, as follows : 
With both hands spread out to cover a large surface, press on the 
abdomen (behind the ribs) and then on the chest (behind the shoulders), 
and continue in this manner, first on the abdomen and then on the 
cfiest in regular order, so that the chest and the abdomen are each 
pressed on alternately about twenty times a minute. The pressure 
should be slow and steady, so that the movement given by it to the 
walls of the chest and abdomen will resemble their motion in breathing. 
A hand bellows may be used as an aid to the foregoing method, as 
follows : Each time after the chest is pressed on the nozzle is inserted 
in the nostril and air slowly and gently forced in by the bellows. 

When the animal revives sufficiently to be able to swallow, 4 drams 
of the liquor ammonia fortis, diluted with a quart of cold water, should 
be given as a drench, and the dose should be repeated in an hour. One 
and one-half ounces of ordinary hartshorn may t)e used instead of the 
stronger liquor ammonia, but, like the latter, it should be diluted with 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 135 

a quart or more of water, and even then care should be exercised in 
drenching - . 

In cases when the shock has not caused complete insensibility recov- 
ery may be hastened by the ammonia and water drench, or 4 ounces of 
brandy diluted with a quart of water, or 8 ounces of whisky diluted 
with a quart of water. These doses may be given every three or four 
hours, if necessary. After recovery from the more serious symptoms, 
2 drams of sulphate of quinine should be given twice a day until health 
is restored. If any paralysis remains, 1J drams of pulverized nux 
vomica should be given twice a day with the quinine. 

The foregoing treatment is also applicable when the electrical shock 
is given by telephone, electric car, or electric light wires, etc. The 
wounds, burns, or blisters should be treated according to the antiseptic 
method of treating wounds. 

TUMORS IN THE BRAIN, ETC. 

Tumors of different kinds have been found within the cranial cavity, 
and in many cases there have been no well-marked symptoms exhib- 
ited during the life of the animal to lead one to suspect their existence. 
Cases are recorded where bony tumors have been found in the brain of 
cattle that died suddenly, but during life no signs of disease were man- 
ifested. Post-mortem examinations have discovered tubercular matter 
in the membranes of the brain (see Tuberculosis, p. 403). Abscesses, 
usually the result of inflammation of the brain, have been found post- 
mortem. For the description of hydrocephalus, or dropsy of the brain 
of calves, the reader is referred to the section on parturition. (See 
Water in the Head, p. 200.) 

Chorea, constant twitching and irregular spasmodic movements of 
the muscles, has been noticed in connection with, or as a sequel to 
other affections, as, for example, parturient apoplexy. 

Various diseases, the description of which will be found in other sec- 
tions of this work, affect the nervous system to a greater or less extent. 
For example, ergotism, lead poisoning, uraemia, parturient apoplexy, 
colic, and other affections associated with cramps or spasms, etc. Dis- 
ease of the ovaries, by reflex irritation, may cause cestromania (see 
Excess of Venereal Desire, p. 170), constant desire for the bull. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 



By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S.. 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 



Of the materials that have served their purpose in building up the 
animal body or in sustaining the bodily temperature, and that are now 
to be thrown out as waste, the greater part are expelled from the system 
through the lungs and the kidneys. But the agents that pass out by 
either of these two channels differ in the main from those passing by 
the other. Thus from the lungs in the form of dioxide of carbon — the 
same gas that comes from burning of coal or oil — there escapes most of 
the waste material resulting from the destruction in the system of fats, 
sugars, starch, and such other foods as are wanting in the element nitro- 
gen, and do not form fibrous tissues, but go mainly to support animal 
he^it. From the kidneys, on the other hand, are thrown out the waste 
products resulting from the destruction of the foods and tissues con- 
taining nitrogen — of, e. g., albumen, fibrin, gluten, casein, gelatin, 
woody tissue, etc. While much of the waste material containing nitro- 
gen leaves the body by the bowels, this is virtually such only of the 
albuminoid food as has failed to be fully digested and absorbed, and 
this has never formed a true constituent part of the body itself or of the 
blood, but is so much waste food, like that which has come to the table 
and been carried away again nuused. Where the albuminoid food ele- 
ment has entered the blood, whether or not it has been built up into a 
constituent part of the structure of the body, its waste products, which 
contain nitrogen, are in the main expelled through the kidneys, so that 
these organs become the principal channels for the expulsion of all 
nitrogen-containing waste. 

It would be an error, however, to infer that all nitrogenous food, 
when once digested and absorbed into the blood, must necessarily 
leave the system in the urine. On the contrary, in the young and 
growing animal all increase of the fibrous structures of the body is 
gained through the building up of those flesh-forming constituents into 
their substance; in the pregnant animal the growth of the offspring 
and its envelopes has a similar origin, and in the dairy cow the casein 
or curd of the milk is a means of constant elimination of these nitrogen- 
containing agents. Thus, in the breeding and, above all, in the milk- 

137 



138 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

ing cow the womb or udder carries on a work in one sense equivalent, 
to that otherwise performed by the kidneys. Not only are these organs 
alike channels for the excretion of albuminous products, but they are 
also related to each other structurally and by nervous sympathy, so 
that suffering in the one is liable to induce some measure of disorder in 
the other. 

This nitrogenous waste matter is mainly present in the urine of cat- 
tle, as of other mammals, in the form of urea, but also, to some extent, 
as hippuric acid, a derivative of vegetable food which, in the herbivora, 
replaces the uric acid found in the urine of man and carnivora. Uric 
acid is, however, found in the urine of sucking calves which have 
practically an animal diet, and it may also appear in the adult in case 
of absolute and prolonged starvation, and in diseases attended by com- 
plete loss of appetite and rapid wasting of the body. In such cases the 
animal lives on its own substance, and the product is that of the wast- 
ing flesh. 

The other products containing nitrogen are only present in small 
amount, and need not be specially referred to. The urine of cattle 
contains much less of carbonates than does that of the horse, and effer- 
vesces less on the addition of an acid. As the carbonates form a large 
proportion of the solid deposits (gravel, stone) from the horse's urine, 
the ox may thus be held less liable ; yet even in the ox the carbonates 
become abundant or scanty, according to the nature of the food, and 
therefore gravel, formed by carbonate of lime, is not infrequent in cat- 
tle. When fed on beets, clover hay, or bean straw, carbonates are 
present in large amount, these aliments being rich in organic acids and 
alkaline carbonates ; whereas upon oat straw, barley straw, and, above 
all, wheat straw, they are in small amount. In calves fed on milk alone 
no carbonates are found in the urine. 

Phosphates, usually in combination with lime, are, as a rule, present 
only in traces in the urine of cattle; yet, on a dietary of wheat, bran, 
or other aliment rich in phosphates, these may be present in large 
amount, so that they render the liquid cloudy or are deposited in solid 
crystals. The liquid is rendered transparent by nitric acid. 

The cow's urine, on a diet of hay and potatoes, contained : 

Parts. 

Urea 18.5 

Potassic hippurate 16. 5 

Alkaline lactates 17. 2 

Potassium bicarbonate 16. 1 

Magnesium carbonate 4.7 

Lime carbonate 0.6 

Potass, sulphate 3. 6 

Common salt 1.5 

Silica Trace. 

Phosphates .- 0. 

Water and undetermined substances 921. 3 

Total 1,000.0 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 



139 



The following table after Tereg* gives tlie different conditions of the 
urine, and especially the amount of urea and hippuric acid under dif- 
ferent rations. The subjects were two oxen, weighing respectively (1), 
1,260 pounds, and (2), 1,060 pounds: 



Food per day, pounds. 



16.90 wheat straw, and 1.30 bean 
meal 

14.70 oat straw, and 2.30 bean meal. 

10.4 wheat straw, 10.4 clover nay, 
0.6 beau meal, and 2.6 starch 

10.4 wheat straw, 10.4 clover hay. 
2.7 bean meal, 1.4 starch, and 0.8 
sugar 

10.4 wheat straw, 10.4 clover hay, 
5 bean meal, and 0.8 sugar 

10 wheat straw, 10 clover hay, 6.4 
bean meal, 1.7 starch, 4 sugar, 
and 0.4 rape oil 

10 wheat straw, 10 clover hay, 9.4 
bean meal, 3.1 sugar, and 0.4 
rape oil 

10 wheat straw, 10 clover hay, 11.7 
bean meal, 2.8 starch, and 0.6 
rape oil 

17.86 bean straw, and 1.6 bean meal. 

14.88 bean straw 

16.90 meadow hay 





IS 


1 


IS 

ft 

IB 

a 
P 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


46.46 


7.40 


61.10 


15.26 


71.76 


12. 36 


80.54 


12.46 


78.96 


17.62 


110. 12 


25.86 


101. 80 


27.04 


119.00 


23.20 


54.84 


12.60 


55.76 


16.34 


36.26 


15.14 



1036 
1039 



1044 
1043 

1038 

1037 



1038 
1043 
1036 
1042 



Pr. ct. 



8.41 
6.93 



8.29 
8.41 

7.00 

7.14 



7.74 
7.06 
5.45 
7.91 



2.66 
2.09 



Pr. ct. 



1.33 

0.84 



1.85 



0. 87 2. 41 
0. 74 3. 12 



0.31 
0.20 



0.21 
0.40 
0.11 
1.30 



2.49 
2.95 



4.06 
2.53 
1.41 
1.73 





a 


t>j 


an 

"3's 

§D-Sd 

o t< © 


p 

"3 

o 
H 


C8 
H 

ft 


Per. ct. 


Pr. ct. 


Ozs. 


0.83 


0.94 


1.63 


0.55 


0.49 


2.2 


0.93 


0.94 


3.83 


1.19 


1.11 


5.8 


1.45 


1.24 


9.17 


1.19 


1.25 


10.9 


1.39 


1.58 


13.3 


1.91 


1.69 


15.4 


1.21 


1.15 


5.3 


0.67 


0.64 


3.83 


0.91 


0.92 


4.37 



S3 fn 



Ozs. 

3.23 
5.3 

1.96 

2.1 

2.17 

1.33 
0.9 



0.8 
0.83 
0.3 
3.3 



The varying amount of urea (from 1.6 to 15.4 ounces) is most sugges- 
tive as to the action of the more or less nitrogenous food and the 
resulting concentration of the urine and blood. Hippuric acid, on the 
other hand, is most abundant when the animal is fed on hay and straw. 

The specific gravity of the urine of cattle varies from 1.030 to 1.060 
in health, water being 1,000. It is transparent, with a yellowish tinge, 
and has a characteristic musky smell. The chemical reaction is alkaline, 
turning red litmus paper blue. The quantity passed in 24 hours varies 
greatly, increasing not only with the amount of water drunk, but with 
the amount of albuminoids taken within the food and the amount of 
urea produced. If a solution of urea is injected into the veins the 
secretion of urine is greatly augmented. Similarly the excess of salts 
like carbonate of potash in the food, or of sugar, increases the action 
of the kidneys. Only about 20 per cent of the water swallowed escapes 
in the urine, the remaining 80 per cent passing mostly from the lungs, 
and to a slight extent by the bowels. The skin of the ox does not per- 
spire so readily nor so freely as that of the horse, hence the kidneys and 
lungs are called upon for extra work. The influence of an excess of 
water in the food is most remarkable in swill-fed distillery cattle, which 
urinate profusely at frequent intervals and yet thrive and fatten 
rapidly. 

Among the other conditions that increase the flow of urine is over- 



Encyklop. der Thierheilk., Vol. IV, p. 208. 



140 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

filling of (internal pressure in) the blood vessels of the kidneys. 
Hence the contraction of the blood-vessels of the skin by cold drives 
the blood inward, tends to dilate the blood-vessels of the kidneys, 
and to increase the secretion of urine. Nervous disorders, such as 
excitement, fear, congestions, or structural injuries to the back part 
of the base of the brain, have a similar result. Hence, doubtless, the 
action of certain fungi growing in musty hay or oats in producing pro- 
fuse flow of urine, whereas other forms of musty fodder cause stupor, 
delirium, or paralysis. 

•The amount of urine passed daily by an ox on dry feeding averages 
7 to 12 pints, but this may be increased enormously on a watery diet. 

The mutual influence of the kidneys and other important organs tends 
to explain the way in which disease in one part supervenes on pre-ex- 
isting disorder in another. The introduction of albuminoids in excess 
into the blood means the formation of an excess of urea, and a more 
profuse secretion of urine, of a higher specific gravity, and with a greater 
tendency to deposit its solid constituents, as gravel, in the kidneys or 
bladder. A torpid action of the liver having the albuminoids in transi- 
tion forms, less soluble than the urea into which they should have been 
changed, favors the onset of rheumatism or nervous disorder, the de- 
posit of such albuminoid products in the kidneys, the formation of a 
deep brown or reddish urine, and congestion of the kidneys. Any ab- 
normal activity of the liver in the production of sugar — more than can 
be burned up in the circulation — overstimulates the kidneys and pro- 
duces increased flow of a heavy urine with a sweetish taste. This in- 
creased production of sugar may be primarily due to disease of the 
brain, which, in its turn, determines the disorder of the liver. Disease 
of the right side of the heart or of the lungs, by obstructing the onward 
flow of blood from the veins, increases the blood pressure in the kidneys 
and produces disorder and excessive secretion. Inactivity of the kid- 
neys determines an increase in the blood of waste products, which become 
irritating to different parts, producing skin eruptions, itching, dropsies, 
and nervous disorders. Sprains of the loins will produce bleeding from 
the kidneys and disease of the spinal cord, and determine sometimes 
albuminous or milky-looking urine. 

The kidney of the ox (Plate ix, Fig. 1) is a compound organ made up 
of fifteen to twenty-five separate lobules like so many separate kidneys, 
but all pouring their secretion into one common pouch (pelvis) situated 
in an excavation in the center of the lower surface. While the ox is 
the only domesticated quadruped which maintains this divided con- 
dition of the kidney after birth, this condition is common to all while 
at an early stage of development in the womb. The cluster of lobules 
making up a single kidney forms an ovoid mass flattened from above 
downward, and extending from the last rib backward beneath the loins 
and to one side of the solid chain of the backbone. The right is more 
firmly attached to the loins and extends further backward than the left. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 141 

Deeply covered in a mass of suet, each kidney has a strong outer white, 
fibrous covering, and inside this two successive layers of kidney sub- 
stance, of which the outer is that in which the urine is mainly separated 
from the blood and poured into the fine microscopic urinary ducts. 
(Plate x, Fig. 1.) These latter, together with blood vessels, lymph vessels, 
and nerves, make up the second or internal layer. The outer layer is 
mainly composed of minute globular clusters of microscopic intercom- 
municating blood-vessels (Malphigiau bodies), each of which is furnished 
with a fibrous capsule that is nothing else than the dilated commence- 
ment of a urine tube. These practically microscopic tubes follow at first 
a winding course through the outer layer (Ferrein's tubes), then form a 
long loop (doubling on itself) in the inner layer (Henle's loop), and finally 
pass back through the inner layer (Bellini's tubes) to open through a 
conical process into the common pouch (pelvis) on the lower surface of 
the organ. (Plate x, Figs. 1, 2, 3). 

The tube that conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder is like 
a white round cord about the size of a goose-quill, prolonged from the 
pouch on the lower surface of the kidney backward beneath the loins, 
then inward, supported by a fold of thin membrane, to open into the 
bladder just in front of its neck. The canal passes first through the 
middle (muscular) coat of the bladder, and then advances perceptibly 
between that and the internal coat (mucus), through which it finally 
opens. By this arrangement in overfilling of the bladder this opening 
is closed like a valve by the pressure of the urine, and the return of 
liquid to the kidney is prevented. The bladder (Plate ix, Fig. 2) is a 
dilatable egg-shaped pouch, closed behind by a strong ring of muscular 
fibers encircling its neck, and enveloped by looped muscular fibers ex- 
tending on all sides round its body and closed anterior end. Stimu- 
lated by the presence of urine, these last contract and expel the con- 
tents through the neck into the urethra. This last is the tube leading 
backward along the floor of the pelvic bones and downward through 
the penis. In the bull this canal of the urethra is remarkable for its 
small caliber and for the S-shaped bend which it describes in the inter- 
val between the thighs and just above the scrotum. This bend is due 
to the fact that the retractor muscles are attached to the penis at this 
point, and in withdrawing that organ within its sheath they double it 
upon itself. The small size of the canal and this S-shaped bend are 
serious obstacles to the passing of a catheter to draw off the urine, yet 
by extending the penis out of its sheath the bend is effaced, and a small 
gum-elastic catheter, not over one-quarter of an inch in diameter, may 
with care be passed into the bladder. In the cow the urethra is very 
short, opening in the median line on the floor of the vulva about four 
inches in front of its external orifice. Even in the cow, however, the 
passing of a catheter is a matter of no little difficulty, the opening of 
the uretha being very narrow and encircled by their projecting mem- 
branous and rigid margins, and on each side of the opening is a blind 



142 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

pouch (canal of Gartner) into which the catheter will almost invari- 
ably find its way. In both male and female, therefore, the passage of 
a catheter is an operation which demands special skill. 

General symptoms of urinary disorders. — These are not so prominent 
in cattle as in horses, yet when present they are of a similar kind. 
There is a stiff or straddling gait with the hind limbs and some diffi- 
culty in turning, or in lying down and rising — the act drawing forth a 
groan. The frequent passage of urine in dribblets, the continuous 
escape of the urine in drops, the sudden arrest of the flow when in 
full stream, the rhythmic contraction of the muscles under the anus 
without any flow resulting, the swelling of the sheath, the collection of 
hard gritty masses on the hair surrounding the orifice of the sheath, 
the occurrence of dropsies in the limbs, under the chest or belly, or in 
either of these cavities, and finally the appearance of nervous stupor, 
may indicate serious disorder of the urinary organs. The condition of 
the urine passed may likewise lead to suspicion. It maybe white, from 
crystallized carbonate of lime; brown, red, or even black, from the 
presence of blood or blood-coloring matter; yellow, from biliary color- 
ing matter; it may be frothy, from contained albumen; cloudy, from 
phosphates ; glairy, from pus ; or it may show gritty masses, from 
gravel. In many cases of urinary disorder in the ox, however, the 
symptoms are by no means prominent, and unless special examination 
is made of the loins, the bladder, and the urine, the true nature of the 
malady may be overlooked. 

DIURESIS — POLYURIA — DIABETES INSIPIDUS — EXCESSIVE SECRETION 

OF URINE. 

A secretion of urine in excess of the normal amount may be looked 
on as disease, even if the result does not lead to immediate loss of con- 
dition. Cattle fed on distillery swill are striking examples of such 
excess caused by the enormous consumption of a liquid food, which 
nourishes and fattens in spite of the diuresis. But the condition is un- 
wholesome, and cattle that have passed four or five months in a swill 
stable have fatty livers and kidneys, and never again do well on ordi- 
nary food. Diuresis may further occur from increase of blood pressure 
in the kidneys (diseases of the heart or lungs which hinder the onward 
passage of the blood, the eating of digitalis, English broom, the con- 
traction of the blood vessels on the surface of the body in cold weather, 
etc.); also from acrid or diuretic plants taken with the food (dandelion, 
burdock, colchicum, digitalis, savin, resinous shoots, etc.); from excess 
of sugar in the food (beets, turnips, ripe sorghum) ; also from the use of 
frozen food (frosted turnip-tops and other vegetables); and from the 
growths of certain molds in fodder (musty hay, mow-burnt hay, moldy 
oats, moldy bread, etc.). Finally, alkaline waters aud alkaline incrusta- 
tions on the soil may be active causes. In some of these cases the 
result is beneficial rather than injurious, as when cattle affected with 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 143 

gravel in the kidneys are entirely freed from this condition by a run at 
grass, or by an exclusive diet of roots or swill. In other cases, how- 
ever, the health and condition suffer, and even inflammation of the kid- 
neys may occur. 

The treatment is mainly in the change of diet to a more solid aliment 
destitute of the special offensive ingredient. Boiled flaxseed is often 
the best diet or addition to the wholesome dry food, and by way of 
medicine, doses of 2 drams each of sulphate of iron and iodide of potas- 
sium may be given twice daily. In obstinate cases, 2 drams ergot of 
rye or of catechu may be added. 

BLOODY URINE — RED-WATER — MOOR-ILL — WOOD-ILL — HEMATURIA — 

HEMOGLOBINURIA. 

This is a common affection among cattle in certain localities, above 
all on damp, undrained lands, and under a backward agriculture. It 
is simple bloody urine or hematuria when the blood is found in clots, 
or when under the microscope the blood globules can be detected as 
distinctly rounded flattened discs. It is smoky urine — hsemaglobinu- 
ria — when no such distinct clots nor blood discs can be found, but 
merely a general browning, reddening or blackening of the urine by 
the presence of dissolved blood-coloring matter. The bloooy urine is 
the more direct result of structural disease of the kidneys or urinary 
passages (inflammation, stone, gravel, tumors, hydatids, kidney worms, 
sprains of the loins), while the stained urine (hsemaglobinuria) is usually 
the result of some general or more distant disorder in which the glob- 
ules are destroyed in the circulating blood and the coloring matter 
dissolved in and diffused through the whole mass of the blood and of 
the urine secreted from it. As in the two forms, blood, and the ele- 
ments of blood, escape into the urine, albumen is always present, so that 
there is albuminuria with blood-coloring matter superadded. If due to 
stone or gravel, gritty particles are usually passed, and may be detected 
in the bottom of a dish in which the liquid is caught. If due to frac- 
ture or severe sprain of the loins it is likely to be associated not only 
with some loss of control over the hind limbs, and with staggering 
behind, but also with a more or less perfect paralysis of the tail. The 
blood-stained urine without red globules results from specific diseases, 
Texas fever (Plate xlhi, Fig. 3), anthrax, and from eating irritant plants 
(broom, savin, mercury, hellebore, ranunculus, convolvulus, colchicum, 
oak shoots, ash, privet, hazel, hornbeam, and other astringent, acrid, or 
resinous plants, etc.). The Maybug or Spanish fly taken with the food 
or spread over a great extent of skin as a blister has a similar action. 
Frosted turnips or other roots will bring on the affection in some sub- 
jects. Among conditions which act by the direct destruction of the 
globules in the circulating blood, may be named an excess of water in 
that fluid; the use of water from soils rich in decomposing vegetable 
matter, and containing alkaline salts, particularly nitrites, and the 



144 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

presence in the water and food of the ptomaines of bacteria growth — 
hence the prevalence of " red- water " in marshy districts and on clayey 
and other impervious soils; hence, too, the occurrence of bloody urine 
in the advanced stages of several contagious diseases. Some mineral 
poisons, such as iodine, arsenic, and phosphorus taken to excess, may 
cause hematuria, and finally the symptoms may be the mere result of 
a constitutional predisposition of the individual or family to bleeding. 
Exposure of the body to cold or wet will cause the affection in some pre- 
disposed subjects. 

The specific symptom of bloody or smoky water is a very patent one. 
It may be associated with fever or not, with the presence or absence of 
abdominal tenderness on pressure, with a very frothy state of the milk 
or even a reddish tinge, with or without marked paleness of the mu- 
cous membranes and general weakness. When direct injury to the 
kidneys is the immediate cause of the disease the urine will be passed 
often, in small quantity at a time, and with much straining. When 
there is bloodlessness (a watery blood) from insufficient nourishment, 
fever is absent and the red water is at first the only symptom. When 
the active cause has been irritant plants, abdominal tenderness, colics, 
and other signs of bowel inflammation are marked features. 

Treatment will vary according as the cause has been a direct irritant 
operating on a subject in vigorous health or a malarious poison acting 
on an animal deficient in blood and vigor. In the first form of red- 
water a smart purgative (1 pound to 1£ pounds Glauber salts) will 
clear away the irritants from the bowels and allay the coexistent high 
fever. It will also serve to divert to the bowels much of the irritant 
products already absorbed into the blood, and will thus protect the 
kidneys. In many such cases a liberal supply of wholesome, easily 
digestible food will be all the additional treatment required. In this 
connection demulcent food (boiled flaxseed, wheat bran) is especially 
good. If much blood has been lost, bitters (gentian, one-half ounce) 
and iron (sulphate of iron, 2 drams) should be given for a week. 

For cases in which excess of diuretic plants have been taken, it may 
be well to replace the salts by 1 to 2 pints olive oil, adding 1 ounce 
laudanum and 2 drams gum camphor. Also to apply fomentations or a 
fresh sheepskin over the loins. Buttermilk or vinegar, one-half pint, or 
sulphuric acid, 60 drops in a pint of water, may also be employed at 
intervals as injections. In cases due to sprained or fractured loins, to 
inflamed kidneys, or to stone or gravel, the treatment will be as for the 
particular disease in question. 

In hsematuria from anseinia (watery blood), whether from insufficient 
or badly-adjusted rations, or from the poisonous products of fermenta- 
tions in impervious or marshy soils, the treatment must be essentially 
tonic and stimulating. Rich, abundant, and easily digestible food must 
be furnished. The different grains (oats, barley, wheat, bran, rye) and 
seeds (rape, linseed, cotton-seed) are especially called for, and may be 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 145 

given either ground or boiled. As a bitter, sulphate of quinia one-half 
dram, and tincture of muriate of iron 2 drams, may be given in a pint 
of water thrice a day. In some cases one or two teaspoonfuls of oil of 
turpentine twice daily in milk will act favorably. 

But in this amemic variety prevention is the great need. The drain- 
age and cultivation of the dangerous soils is the main object. Until 
this can be accomplished young and newly-purchased cattle, not yet 
inured to the poisons, must be kept from the dangerous fields and 
turned only on those which are already drained naturally or artificially. 
Further, they should have an abundant ration in which the local pro- 
duct of grass, hay, etc., is supplemented by grain or other seeds. An- 
other point to be guarded against is the supply of water that has 
drained from marshes or impervious soils, rich in organic matter, as 
such is charged with nitrites, ptomaines, etc., which directly conduce 
to the disorder. Fence out from all such waters, and supply from living 
springs or deep wells only. 

ALBUMEN IN THE URINE — ALBUMINURIA. 

In bloody urine albumen is always present as an important constitu- 
ent of the blood, and in congested and inflamed kidneys it is present 
as a part of the inflammatory exudate. Apart from these albumen in 
the urine represents in different cases a variety of diseased conditions 
of the kidneys or of distant organs. Among the additional causes of 
albuminuria maybe named: (1) An excess of albumen in the blood 
(after easy calving with little loss of blood and before the secretion of 
milk has been established, or in cases of sudden suppression of the 
secretion of milk); (2) under increase of blood pressure (after deep 
drinking, after doses of digitalis or broom, after transfusion of blood 
from one animal to another, or in disease of the heart or lungs causing 
obstruction to the flow of blood from the veins) ; (3) after cutting (or 
disease) of the motor nerves of the vessels going to the kidneys, causing 
congestion of these organs; (4) violent exertion, hence long drives by 
road; the same happens with violent muscular spasms as from strychnia 
poisoning, lockjaw, epilepsy, and convulsions; (5) in most fevers and 
extensive inflammations important organs, like the lungs, or liver, the 
escape of the albumen being variously attributed to the high tempera- 
ture of the body and disorder of the nerves, and to resulting congestion 
and disorder of the secreting cells of the kidneys; (6) in burns and some 
other congested states of the skin; (7) under the action of certain poi- 
sons (strong acids, phosphorus, arsenic, Spanish flies, carbolic acid, and 
those inducing bloody urine) ; (8) in certain conditions of weakness or 
congestion of the secreting cells of the kidneys, so that they allow this 
element of the blood to escape; (9) when the food is entirely wanting 
in common salt, albumen may appear in the urine temporarily after a 
full meal containing an excess of albumen. It can also be produced 
experimentally by puncturing the back part of the base of the brain 
24697 10 



146 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

(the floor of the fourth ventricle close to the point the injury to which 
causes sugary urine). In abscess, tumor, or inflammation of the blad- 
der, ureter or urethra, the urine is albuminous. 

It follows, therefore, that albumen in the urine does not indicate the 
existence of any one specific disease, and excepting when due to weak- 
ness or loss of function of the kidney cells, it must be looked on as an 
attendant on another disease, the true nature of which we must try to 
find out. These affections we must exclude one by one until we are left 
to assume the non-inflammatory disorder of the secreting cells of the 
kidney. It is especially important to exclude inflammation of the kid- 
ney, and to do this may require a microscopic examination of the sedi- 
ment of the urine and the demonstration of the entire absence of casts 
of the uriniferous tubes. (See Nephritis.) 

To detect albumen in the urine, the suspected and frothy liquid must 
be rendered sour by adding a few drops of nitric acid and then boiled 
in a test tube. If a solid precipitate forms then add a few more drops of 
nitric acid, and if the liquid does not clear it up it is albumen. A pre- 
cipitate thrown down by boiling and redissolved by nitric acid is prob- 
ably phosphate of lime. 

Treatment will usually be directed to the disease on which it is de- 
pendent. In the absence of any other recognizable disease, mucilaginous 
drinks of boiled flaxseed, slippery elm, or gum may be given, tannic acid 
one-half dram twice daily, and fomentations or even mustard poultices 
over the loins. When the disease is chronic and there is no attendant 
fever (elevation of temperature), tonics (hydrochloric acid, 6 drops in a 
pint of water; phosphate of iron, 2 drains, or sulphate of quinia, 2 drams, 
repeated twice, daily) may be used. In all cases the patient should be 
kept carefully from cold and wet; a warm, dry shed or in warm weather 
a dry, sunny yard or pasture being especially desirable. 

SUGAR IN URINE — DIABETES MELLITUS. 

This is a frequent condition of the urine in parturition fever, but is 
practically unknown in cattle as a specific disease, associated with 
deranged liver or brain. As a mere attendant on another disease it 
will demand no special notice here. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS — NEPHRITIS. 

This has been divided according as it affects the different parts of 
the kidneys, as: (1) Its fibrous covering (perinephritis); (2) the secret- 
ing tissue of its outer portion (parenchymatous); (3) the connective 
tissue (interstitial) ; (4) the lining membrane of its ducts (catarrhal) ; and 
(5) its pelvis or sac receiving tlie urine (pyelitis). It has also been 
distinguished according to the changes that take place in the kidney, 
especially as seen after death, according to the amount of albumen 
present in the urine, and according as the affection is acute or chronic. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 147 

For the purposes of this work it will be convenient to consider these 
as one inflammatory disease, making a distinction merely between those 
that are acute and those that are chronic or of long standing. 

The causes are in the main like those causing bloody urine, such as 
irritant and diuretic plants, Spanish flies applied as a blister or other- 
wise, exposure to cold and wet, the presence of stone or gravel in the 
kidneys, injuries to the back or loins, as by riding each other, the drink- 
ing of alkaline or selenitious water, the use of putrid, stagnant water, 
or of that containing bacteria and their products, the consumption of 
musty fodder, etc. (See Hseinaturia.) 

The length of the loins in cattle predisposes these to mechanical 
injury, and in the lean and especially in the thin working ox the kid- 
ney is very liable to suffer. In the absence of an abundance of loose 
connective tissue and of fat, the kidneys lie in close contact with the 
muscles of the loins, and any injury to these may tend to put the kid- 
ney and its vessels on the stretch, or to cause its inflammation by direct 
extension of the disease from the injured muscle to the adjacent kidney. 
Thus, under unusually heavy draft, under slips and falls on slippery 
ground, under sudden unexpected drooping or twisting of the loins 
from missteps or from the feet sinking into holes, under the loading and 
jarring of the loins when animals ride each other in cases of " heat," 
the kidneys are subjectto injury and inflammation. A hard run, as when 
chased by a dog, may be the occasion of such an attack. A fodder 
rich in nitrogenous or flesh-forming elements (brans, peas, vetches 
[ Vicia sativa], and other leguminous plants), has been charged with irri- 
tating the kidneys through the excess of urea, hippuric acid, and allied 
products eliminated through these organs and the tendency to the for- 
mation of gravel. It seems, however, that these foods are most dan- 
gerous when partially ripened and yet not fully matured, a stage of 
growth at which they are apt to contain ingredients irritating to the 
stomach and poisonous to the brain, as seen in their inducing so-called 
" stomach staggers." Even in the poisoning by the seeds of ripened 
but only partially cured rye grass (Lolium perenne), and darnel (Lolium 
temulentum), the kidneys are found violently congested with black blood. 
Also in the indigestions that result from the eating of partially ripened 
corn and millet, some congestion of the kidneys is an attendant phe- 
nomenon. 

Oruzel claims that the disease as occurring locally is usually not 
alone from the acrid and resinous plants charged with inducing hema- 
turia, but also from stinking chamomile (Anthemis cotula) and field 
poppy when used in the fresh, succulent condition ; also from the great 
prevalence of dead caterpillars on the pasture, or from dead Spanish 
flies in the stagnant pools of water. The fresh plants are believed to 
be injurious only by reason of a volatile oil which is dissipated in dry- 
ing. In the case of the stagnant water it may be questioned whether 
the chemical products of the contained ferments (bacteria) are not more 



148 DISEASES OF CATTLE 

frequently the cause of the evil than the alleged Spanish flies, though 
these are hurtful enough when present. 

Inflammation of the kidneys may further be a form or an extension of 
a specific contagious disease, such as erysipelas, rinderpest, septicemia, 
or even of poisoning by the spores of fun gi . Ei volta reports the case of a 
cow with spots of local congestion and blood staining in the kidney, the. 
affected parts being loaded with bacteria. Unfortunately he neither 
cultivated the bacteria nor inoculated them, and thus the case stands 
without positive demonstration that these were the cause of disease. 

The symptoms of nephritis are in certain cases very manifest, and in 
others so hidden that the existence of the affection can only be cer- 
tainly recognized by a microscopic examination of the urine. In violent 
cases there is high fever, increase of the body temperature to 103° F. 
and upward, hurried breathing with catching inspiration, accelerated 
pulse, dry, hot muzzle, burning of the roots of the horns and ears, loss 
of appetite, suspended rumination, and indications of extreme sensitive- 
ness in the loins. The patient stands with back arched and hind legs 
extended backward and outward, and passes water frequently, in drib- 
lets, of a high color and specific gravity, containing albumen and micro- 
scopic casts. (Plate xi, Fig. 5.) When moved the patient does so with 
hesitation and groaning, especially if turned in a narrow circle; and 
when pinched on the flank, just beneath the lateral bony processes of 
the loins, especially on that side on which the disease predominates, 
it flinches and groans. If the examination is made with the oiled hand 
introduced through the last gut (rectum) the pressure upward on the 
kidneys gives rise to great pain and efforts to escape by moving away, 
and by active contractions of the rectum for the expulsion of the hand. 
Sometimes there is a distinct swelling over the loins or quarter on one 
or both sides. In uncastrated males the testicle on the affected side is 
drawn up, or is alternately raised and dropped. In all there is a lia- 
bility to tremors of the thigh on the side affected. 

In some severe cases colicky pains are as violent as in the worst forms 
of indigestion and spasms of the bowels. The animal frequently shifts 
from one hind foot to the other, stamps, kicks at the belly, looks anx- 
iously at its flank at frequent intervals, moans plaintively, lies down 
and quickly gets up again, grinds its teeth, twists its tail, and keeps 
the back habitually arched and rigid and the hind feet advanced under 
the belly. The bowels may be costive and the feces glistening with a 
coat of mucus, or they may be loose and irritable, and the paunch or 
even the bowels may become distended with gas (bloating) as the result 
of indigestion and fermentation. In some animals, male and female 
alike, the rigid arched condition of the back will give way to such un- 
dulating movements as are sometimes seen in the act of coition. 

The disease does not always appear in its full severity, but for a day 
or even two there may be merely loss of appetite, impaired rumination, 
a disposition to remain lying down; yet when the patient is raised, it 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 149 

manifests suffering by anxious looking at the flanks, shifting or stamp- 
ing of the hind feet, shaking of the tail, and attempts to urinate, which 
are either fruitless or lead to the discharge of a small quantity of high 
colored or perhaps bloody urine. 

In some recent slight cases, and in many chronic ones, these symp- 
toms may be absent or unobserved, and an examination of the urine 
will be necessary to reach a safe conclusion. The urine may contain 
blood, or it may be cloudy from contained albumen which coagulates on 
heating with nitric acid (see Albuminuria); it may be slightly 
glairy from pus, or gritty particles may be detected in it. In seeking 
for casts of the uriniferous tubes, a drop may be taken with a fine tube 
from the bottom of the liquid after standing and examined under a 
power magnifying 50 diameters. If the fine cylindroid filaments are 
seen they may then be examined with a power of 200 or 250 diameters. 
(Plate xi, Fig. 5.) The appearance of the casts gives some clue to the 
condition of the kidneys. If made up of large rounded or slightly 
columnar cells, with a single nucleus in each cell (epithelial), they imply 
comparatively slight and recent disease of the kidney tubes, the detach- 
ment of the epithelium being like what is seen in any inflamed mucous 
surface. If made up largely of the small disk- shaped and nonnucleated 
red blood globules, they imply escape of blood, and usually a recent injury 
or congestion of the kidney — it may be from sprains, blows, or the in- 
gestion of acrid or diuretic poisons. If the casts are made of a clear, 
waxy, homogeneous substance (hyaline), without any admixture ot 
opaque particles, they imply an inflammation of longer standing, in 
which the inflamed kidney tubules have been already stripped of their 
cellular (epithelial) lining. If the casts are rendered opaque by the 
presence of minute spherical granular cells, like white blood globules, 
it betokens active suppuration of the kidney tubes. In other cases the 
casts are rendered opaque by entangled earthy granules (carbonate of 
lime), or crystals of some other urinary salts. In still other cases the 
casts entangle clear, refrangent globules of oil or fat, which may im- 
ply fatty degeneration of the kidneys or injury to the spinal cord. The 
presence of free pus giving a glairy, flocculent appearance to the urine 
is suggestive of inflammation of the urinary pouch at the commence- 
ment of the excretory duct (pelvis of kidney) (Plate ix, Fig. 1), espe- 
cially if complicated with gritty particles of earthy salts. This condi- 
tion is known as pyelitis. In the chronic cases swelling of the legs or 
along the lower surface of chest or abdomen, or within these respective 
cavities, is a common symptom. So, also, stupor or coma, or even con- 
vulsions, may supervene from the poisonous action of urea and other 
waste or morbid products retained in the blood. 

In the treatment of acute nephritis the first consideration is the re- 
moval of the cause. Acrid or diuretic plants in the food must be 
removed, and what of this kind is present in the stomach or bowels 
may be cleared away by a moderate dose of castor or olive oil; exten- 



150 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

sive surfaces of inflammation that have been, blistered by Spanish flies 
must be washed clean with soapsuds; sprains of the back or loins 
must be treated by soothing fomentations or poultices, or by a fresh 
sheepskin with its fleshy side applied on the loins, and the patient must 
be kept in a narrow stall in which it can not turn even its head. The 
patient must be kept in a warm, dry building, so that the skin shall be 
kept active rather than the kidneys. Warm blanketing is equally im- 
portant, and even mustard poultices over the loins will be useful. 
Blisters of Spanish flies, turpentine, or other agent which may be 
absorbed and irritate the kidneys must be avoided. The active fever 
may be checked by 15 drops tincture of aconite every four hours, or by 
one-third ounce acetanilid. If pain is very acute 1 ounce laudanum, 
or 2 drams solid extract of belladonna will serve to relieve. When the 
severity of the disease has passed, a course of tonics (quinia, 2 drams, 
or gentian powder, 2 drams daily) may be given. Diuretics, too, may 
be cautiously given at this advanced stage to relieve dropsy and give 
tone to the kidneys and general system (oil of turpentine, 2 teaspoon- 
fuls; bicarbonate of soda, 1 teaspoonful, repeated twice a day). Pure 
water is essential, and it should not be given chilled; warm drinks are 
preferable. 

In the chronic forms of kidney inflammation the same protection 
against cold and similar general treatment are demanded. Tonics, 
however, are important to improve the general health (phosphate of 
iron, 2 drams ; powdered mix vomica, 20 grains ; powdered gentian root, 
4 drams, daily). In some instances the mineral acids (nitric acid, 60 
drops, or nitro-muriatic acid, 60 drops, daily) may be employed with the 
bitters. Mustard applied to the loins in the form of a thin pulp made 
with water and covered for an hour with paper or other impervious 
envelope, or water hotter than the hand can bear, or cupping may be 
resorted to as a counterirritant. In cupping shave the loins, smear 
them with lard, then take a narrow-mouthed glass, expand the air 
within it by smearing its interior with a few drops of alcohol, setting it 
on fire and instantly pressing the mouth of the vessel to the oiled por- 
tion of the skin. As the air within the vessel cools it contracts, tend- 
ing to form a partial vacuum, and the skin, charged with blood, is 
strongly drawn up within it. Several of these being applied at once a 
strong derivation from the affected kidneys is secured. In no case of 
inflamed or irritable kidney should Spanish flies or oil of turpentine be 
used upon the skin. 

PARASITES OF THE KIDNEY. 

As the kidney is the usual channel by which the bacteria leave the 
system, this organ is liable to be implicated when microphytes exist in 
the blood, and congestions and blood extravasations are produced. 
In anthrax, Southern cattle fever (Texas fever), and other such affec- 
tions bloody urine is the consequence. Of the larger parasites attack- 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 151 

ing the kidney may be specially named the cystic form of the echino- 
coccus tapeworm of the dog, the cystic form of the unarmed or beef 
tapeworm of man, the diving bladderworm — the cystic form of the 
marginate tapeworm of the dog, and the giant strongyle — the largest of 
the round worms. These give rise to general symptoms of kidney dis- 
ease, but the true source of the trouble is only likely to be detected, if 
the heads or booklets of the tapeworm or the eggs of the round worm 
are found on microscopic examination of the urine. 

TUMORS OF THE KIDNEY — HYPERTROPHY — ATROPHY. 

The kidney may be the seat of cancerous or simple tumors, and it 
may be unnaturally enlarged or reduced in size, but though there may 
be signs of urinary disorder the true nature of the disease is seldom 
manifest until after death. The passing of blood and of large multi- 
nucleated cells in the urine (to be detected under the microscope) may 
betray the existence of an ulcerated cancer of the kidney. The pres- 
ence of cancerous enlargement of (superficial) lymphatic glands may 
further assist and confirm the decision. 

RETENTION OP URINE. 

Inability to pass urine may come from any one of three conditions: 
1st, spasm of the neck of the bladder; 2d, paralysis of the body of 
the bladder; 3d, obstruction of the channel of outlet by a stone (cal- 
culus), (see Plate xi), or other obstacle. 

In spasm of the neck of the Madder the male animal may stand with 
the tail slightly raised, and making rhythmical contractions of the 
muscle beneath the anus (acceleratio urinoe) (see Plate ix, Fig. 2), but 
without passing a drop of liquid. In the female the hind legs are ex- 
tended and widely parted, and the back is arched as if to urinate, but 
the effort is vain. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum or 
vagina, in the early stages of the affection, the bladder may be felt 
beneath partially filled, but not overdistended with liquid, and its neck 
or mouth firm and rigid. In the more advanced stages of the affection 
the organ is felt as a great, tense, elastic bag, extending forward into 
the abdomen. In this condition the overdistended muscular coat of 
the bladder had lost its power of contraction, so that true paralysis has 
set in, the muscle closing the mouth of the sack alone retaining its 
normal contractile power. 

In paralysis of the body of the bladder attention is rarely drawn to 
the urinary disorder until the bladder has been distended to full reple- 
tion, and is almost ready to give way by rupture and to allow the escape 
of the contained liquid into the abdomen. Overdistention is the most 
common cause of the paralysis, yet it may occur from inflammation of 
the muscular wall of the bladder, or even from injury to the terminal 
part of the spinal marrow. In this last condition, however, the tail is 



152 DISEASES OF CA.TTLE. 

likely to be powerless, and the neck of the bladder may also be par- 
alyzed so that the urine dribbles away continuously. 

Causes. — Among the causes of spasm of the neck of the bladder may 
be named the lodgment of small stones or gravel, the feeding on irritant 
diuretics (see Bloody Urine, Nephritis), the enforced retention of urine 
while at work, or during a painful or difficult parturition. The irrita- 
tion attendant on inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bladder 
may be a further cause of spasm of the neck, as may also be inflamma- 
tion of the channel (urethra) back of the neck. Extensive applications 
of Spanish flies to the skin, the abuse of diuretics, and the occurrence 
of indigestion and spasms of the bowels are further causes. So long as 
spasmodic colic is unrelieved retention of water from spasm of the neck 
of the bladder usually persists. 

Treatment will depend largely on the cause. In indigestion the irri- 
tant contents of the bowels must be got rid of by laxatives and injections 
of warm water; Spanish-fly blisters must be washed from the surface; 
a prolonged and too active exertion must be intermitted. The spasm 
may be relaxed by injecting one-half ounce solid extract of balladonna 
in water into the rectum or by a solution of tobacco. Chloroform or 
ether may be given by inhalation, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce may be 
given in water by the mouth. Fomentations of warm water may be 
made over the loins and between the thighs, and the oiled hand in- 
serted into the rectum may press moderately on the anterior part of the 
bladder, which can be felt as an elastic fluctuating bag of an oval shape 
just beneath. 

All other measures failing, the liquid must be drawn off through a 
tube (catheter). This is, however, exceedingly difficult alike in male 
and female, and we can not expect an amateur to succeed in accom- 
plishing it. In the cow the opening into the bladder is found in the 
median line of the floor of the generative entrance, about 4 inches in 
front of the external opening, but it is flanked on either side by a blind 
pouch into which the catheter will pass in 99 cases out of 100 in the 
hands of any but the most skilled operator. In the bull or steer the 
penis, when retracted into its sheath, is bent upon itself like the letter 
S, just above the scrotum and testicles (see Plate ix, Fig. 2), and unless 
this bend is effaced by extending the organ forward out of its sheath 
it is quite impossible to pass a catheter beyond this point. When, how- 
ever, the animal can be tempted by the presentation of a female to pro- 
trude the penis so that it can be seized and extended, or when it 
can be manipulated forward out of the sheath, it becomes possible 
to pass a catheter of small caliber (one-third inch or under) onward 
into the bladder. Youatt advised to lay open the sheath so as to 
reach and extend the penis, and others have advocated opening 
the urethra in the interval between the thighs or just beneath 
the anus, but such formidable operations are beyond the stockowner. 
The incision of the narrow urethra through the great thickness of 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 153 

musciilar and erectile bleeding tissue just beneath the anus is es- 
pecially an operation of extreme delicacy and difficulty. Draw- 
ing - off the liquid through the tube of an aspirator is another pos- 
sible resort for the professional man. The delicate needle of the aspi- 
rator is inserted in such cases through the floor of the vagina and up- 
per wall of the bladder in the female, or through the floor of the rectum 
(last gut) and roof of the bladder in the male, or finally through the 
lower and back part of the abdominal wall, just in front of the bones of 
the pelvis (pubic bones), and thence through the lower and anterior part 
of the bladder near its blind anterior end. After relief has been ob- 
tained the administration of belladonna in 2 dram doses daily for sev- 
eral days will tend to prevent a recurrence of the retention. 

When the body of the bladder has become benumbed or paralyzed by 
overdistention, we may seek to restore its tone by doses of one-half a 
dram of powdered mix vomica repeated daily, and by mustard plasters 
applied over the loins, on the back part of the belly inferiorly, or be- 
tween the thighs. Small doses (2 drams) balsam of copaiva are some- 
times useful in imparting tone to the partly paralyzed organ. 

INCONTINENCE OP URINE — PALSY OP THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 

This may occur from disease or injury to the posterior part of 
the spinal cord, or from broken back, and in these cases the tail is 
likely to be paralyzed, and it may be also the hind limbs. In this case 
the urine dribbles away constantly, and the oiled hand in the vagina 
or rectum will feel the half-filled and flaccid bladder beneath, and may 
easily empty it by pressure. 

Treatment is only successful when the cause of the trouble can be 
remedied. After these (sprains of the back, etc.) have recovered, 
blisters (mustard) on the loins, the lower part of the abdomen, or be- 
tween the thighs, may be resorted to with success. Two drams daily 
of copaiva, or of solid extract of belladonna, or two grains Spanish flies 
may serve to restore the lost tone. These failing, the use of electric 
currents may still prove successful. 

URINARY CALCULI — STONE — GRAVEL. 

[Plate xi, Figs, 1, 2, 3.] 

Stone or gravel consists in hard bodies mainly made up of the solid 
earthy constituents of the urine which have crystallized out of that 
liquid at some part of the urinary passage, and have remained as small 
particles (gravel), or have concreted into large masses (stone, calculus). 
In cattle it is no uncommon thing to find them distending the practi- 
cally microscopic tubes in the red substance of the kidney, having been 
deposited from the urine in the solid form almost as soon as that liquid 
has been separated from the blood. These stones appear as white ob- 
jects on the red ground formed by cutting sections of the kidney, and 
are essentially products of the dry feed of winter, and most common in 



154 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

working oxen which are called upon to exhale more water from the 
lungs and skins than are the slop-fed and inactive cows. Little water 
being introduced into the body with the food, and a considerable 
amount being expelled with the breath and perspiration in connection 
with the active life, the urine becomes small in amount, but having to 
carry out all waste material from the tissues and the tissue-forming 
food, it becomes so charged with solids that it is ready to deposit them 
on the slightest disturbance. If, therefore, a little of the water of such 
concentrated urine is reabsorbed at any x^oint of the urinary passages, 
the remainder is no longer able to hold the solids in solution, and they 
are at once precipitated in the solid form as gravel or commencing 
stone. In cattle, on the other hand, which are kept at pasture in sum- 
mer, or which are fed liberally on roots, potatoes, pumpkins, apples or 
ensilage in winter, this concentrated condition of the urine is not in- 
duced, and under such circumstances, therefore, the formation of stone 
is practically unknown. Nothing more need be said to show the con- 
trolling influence of dry feeding in producing gravel and of a watery 
ration in preventing it. Calculus in cattle is essentially a disease of 
winter, and of such cattle as are denied succulent food and are confined 
to dry fodder as their exclusive ration. While there are exceptions, 
they are so rare that they do not invalidate this general rule. It is 
true that stone in the kidney or bladder is often found in the summer 
or in animals feeding at the time on a more or less succulent ration, 
yet such masses usually date back to a former period when the animal 
was restricted to a dry ration. 

In this connection it should be noted that a great drain of water 
from the system, by any other channel than the kidneys, predisposes 
to the production of gravel or stone. In case of profuse diarrhea, for 
example, or of excessive secretion of milk, there is a corresponding 
diminution of the water of the blood, and as the whole amount of the 
blood is thus decreased, and as the quantity of urine secreted is largely 
influenced by the fulness of the blood vessels and the pressure exerted 
upon their walls from within, it follows that with this decrease of the 
mass of the blood and the lessening of its pressure outward, there 
will be a corresponding decrease of urine. The waste of the tissues, 
however, goes on as before, and if the waste matter is passed out 
through the kidneys it must be in a more concentrated solution, and 
the more concentrated the urine the greater the danger that the solids 
will be deposited as small crystals or calculi. 

Again, the concentrated condition of the urine which predisposes to 
such deposits is favored by the quantity of lime salts that may be 
present in the water drunk by the animal. Water that contains 20 or 
30 grains of carbonate or sulphate of lime to the gallon must con- 
tribute a large addition of solids to the blood, and urine as compared 
with soft waters from which lime is absent. In this connection it is a 
remarkable fact that stone and gravel in the domesticated herbivora 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 



155 



are notoriously prevalent on many limestone soils, as on the limestone 
formations of central and western New York, Penusylania, Ohio, and 
Michigan; on the calcareous formations of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derby- 
shire, Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; in Landes in 
France, and around Munich in Bavaria. It does not follow that the 
abundance of lime in the water and fodder is the main cause of the 
calculi, since other poisons which are operative in the same districts in 
causing goitre in both man and animal probably contribute to the 
trouble, yet the excess of earthy salts in the drinking water can hardly 
fail to add to the saturation of both blood and urine, and thereby to 
favor the precipitation of the urinary solids from their state of solution. 

The known results of feeding cattle a generous or forcing ration in 
which phosphate of lime is present to excess adds additional force to 
the view just advanced." In the writer's experience, the Second Duke 
of Oneida, a magnificent product of his world-famed family, died as the 
result of a too liberal allowance of wheat bran, fed with the view of 
still further improving the bone and general form of the Duchess strain 
of Shorthorns. Lithotomy was performed and a number of stones re- 
moved from the bladder and urethra, but the patient succumbed to an 
inflammation of the bowels, induced by the violent purgatives given 
before the writer arrived, under the mistaken idea that the straining- 
had been caused by intestinal impaction. In this case not only the 
Second Duke of Oneida, but the other males of the herd as well, had 
the tufts of hairs at the outlet of the sheath encased in hard, cylin- 
droid sheaths of urinary salts, precipitated from the liquid as it ran 
over them. The tufts were in reality resolved into a series of hard, 
roller -like bodies, more or less constricted at intervals, as if braided. 

When it is stated that the ash of the whole grain of wheat is but 3 
per cent, while the ash of wheat bran is 7.3 per cent, and that in the 
case of the former 46.38 per cent of the ash is phosphoric acid, and in 
that of the latter 50 per cent, it can easily be understood how a too 
liberal use of wheat bran should prove dangerous if fed dry. The fol- 
lowing table shows the relative proportion of ash and ]3hosj)horic acid 
in wheat bran and in some common farm seeds : 



Wheat bran 

Wheat, grain , 

Oats, grain 

Barley, grain 

Bean, grain 

Pea, grain , 

Tare, grain 

Indian corn, grain 
Bye, grain 



Ash. 


Phosphoric 


acid in ash. 


Per ct. 


Per cent. 


7.3 


50 


3 


46.38 


2.50 


26.5 


3.10 


39.6 


3.10 


31.9 


2.75 


34.8 


3 


36.2 


1.5 




1.6 


39.9 



Phosphoric 
acid in the 
entire food. 



Per cent. 
3.65 
1. 3914 
0. 6625 
1. 2276 
0. 9864 
0.957 
1.086 



0.0384 



156 



DISEASES OP CATTLE. 



Wheat bran, it will be observed, contains three times as much phos- 
phoric acid as is found in any of the other grains, and four times as 
much as do oats, beans, peas, or rye; so that if fed in excess it will 
readily overcharge the urine with phosphates. 

There is another point to be considered, however, in estimating this 
danger. Wheat bran contains a far greater amount of albuminoids and 
other nitrogen-containing constituents than do the common grains 
(these being made up mainly of starch which contains no nitrogen), and 
all nitrogen-bearing products contained in the blood and tissues being- 
expelled from the body mainly through the kidneys in the form of urea 
and (in cattle) hippuric acid, it follows that the excess of urea found 
when such food is consumed must load the urine with solids and bring 
it constantly nearer to the point of saturation, when such solids (or the 
least soluble of them) must be deposited. 

The following table will show the relative amounts of the nitrogen- 
bearing products in wheat bran and some of our common grains: 



Wheat bran . 
Wheat, grain 
Barley, grain 
Oats, grain . . 

Eye, grain 

Indian corn.. 



Albuminoids 
(nitrog- 
enous). 



Per cent. 
16.1 
12.5 
12.4 
11.8 
10.6 
10.1 



Woody fiber 
(nitrog- 
enous). 



Per cent. 
8 

1.8 
2.7 
9.5 
1.7 
1.7 



Total 
nitrogenons- 
bearing con- 
stituents. 



Per cent. 

24.1 
14.3 
15.1 
21.3 
12.3 
11.8 



It will be observed that, with the exception of oats, none of the 
grains contain more than two-thirds of the nitrogenous material present 
in the wheat bran, while in the case of rye and maize there is practi- 
cally but one-half. Even in the case of oats the albuminoids, which are 
the more digestible principles, and, therefore, those that are the most 
easily and speedily converted into urea, are present only to the amount 
of two-thirds of that which exists in the wheat bran. With such an 
excess of .ash, of phosphates, and of nitrogenous (urea-forming) con- 
stituents in wheat bran, its tendency to favor the formation of calculi 
is fully explained. It must not, however, be inferred that wheat bran 
is not a valuable food stuff. The inference is only that it should be 
fed with an abundance of water, as a sloppy mash or in combination 
with an abundance of roots, potatoes, pumpkins, or other succulent 
aliment. 

In this connection the presence of magnesia in the food or water must 
be named as favoring calculous formations in the urinary passages. 
The explanation is that while the phosphate of magnesia thrown out in 
the urine is soluble in water, the compound phosphate of ammonia and 
magnesia is insoluble, and, accordingly, if at any time ammonia is in- 
troduced into urine containing the phosphate of magnesia, there is in- 



DISEASES OF THE URINAEY ORGANS. 157 

stantly formed the ammonio-niagnesium phosphate, which is as promptly 
deposited in the solid form. The common source of ammonia in such 
cases is from decomposition of the urea in fermenting urine. But in 
order to produce this a ferment is necessary, and therefore, as an addi- 
tional prerequisite, the presence of bacteria or fungi in the urine is es- 
sential. These ferments may make their way from without along the 
urinary passage (urethra), and their propagation in the bladder is 
greatly favored by the prolonged retention of urine, as in case of spasm 
of the neck of the bladder or obstruction by an already existing stone. 
Another mode of entrance of the ferment is an uncleanly catheter used 
to draw off the urine. 

Another insoluble salt which enters largely into the composition of 
many urinary calculi of the ox is carbonate of lime. This is derived 
mainly from the lime in the food and water and from the carbon diox- 
ide formed by the oxidation of the organic acids in the fodder. These 
organic acids, being composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (with- 
out nitrogen), are resolved, by the addition of oxygen, into carbon di- 
oxide (C0 2 ) and water (H 2 0). The carbon dioxide unites with the lime 
in the blood to form carbonate of lime, and in this state passes into the 
urine. JSTow, carbonate of lime is soluble in water containing free or 
uncombined carbon dioxide, but is precipitated whenever the latter is 
withdrawn. It is only necessary, therefore, to have in the urine suffi- 
cient lime or other available base to unite with all the free carbon di- 
oxide in order to bring about the precipitation of the dissolved carbon- 
ate of lime in the solid crystallized form. Hence it is that of all sedi- 
ments in the urine of herbivora this is the most frequent and usually 
the most abundant. 

A less common constituent of urinary calculi is the insoluble oxalate 
of lime. In this case the lime is derived as before from the food or 
water, or both, while the oxalic acid is a product of the oxidation of 
organic acids of the food, less oxygen having been used than in the 
formation of carbon dioxide. The final product of the complete oxida- 
tion of these acids is carbon dioxide, but when less oxygen is furnished 
owing to some disease of the lungs or a disease of the nerve centers, 
which lessens the activity of the breathing, then oxalic acid may be 
produced. Then if this oxalic acid comes in contact with lime it is 
instantly precipitated as crystals of oxalate of lime. 

Another inorganic substance at times found in urinary calculi is 
silica (Si0 2 ). This contributes largely to giving stiffness to the stems 
of growing plants, and in most of our cereals and grasses makes up a 
large proportion of the ashes of the burnt plant. It is found in the 
soluble form in combination as silicate of potash, but at times is dis- 
placed by oxalic or other acid and then appears as gritty, sandy particles 
in the stem. This gritty, insoluble silica is especially noticeable among 



158 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



the horsetails (Equisetacece), bamboos, and sedges. The percentage of 
silica in the ash of several common fodder plants is given below : 



Ash of— 


Silica. 


"Wheat straw 

Oats and husk 


Percent. 
67.6 
38.6 
35.4 
73.1 
64.4 
64.57 
81.2 
59.9 
70.7 


Barley straw 


Rye-grass hay 

Wheat chaff 







It is only soluble silica that is taken up into the system, and it is in 
this form (usually as silicate of potash or soda) that it enters the urine, 
but all that is wanted to precipitate it in crystalline form as a gritty 
sand is the presence of oxalic or other acid having a stronger affinity 
for its base (potash or soda). 

Other conditions, however, enter largely into the causation of stone 
or gravel. A high density of urine resulting from a highly saturated 
condition is often present for a length of time without any precipitation 
of solid materials. Urea and carbonates may be present in excess, 
the food may be given dry, and drinking water may be deficient in 
amount without any deposition of stone or gravel. The presence of 
noncrystalline organic matter in the urine becomes in such cases an 
exciting cause. Rainey and Ord have shown experimentally that col- 
loid (noncrystallizable) bodies like mucus, epithelial cells, albumen, 
pus, blood, hyaline casts of the kidney tubes, etc., not only determine 
the precipitation of cry stall izable salts from a strong solution, but they 
determine the precipitation in the form of globular masses or minute 
spheres, which, by further similar accessions, become stones or calculi 
of various sizes. The salts that are deposited by mere chemical reac- 
tion without the intervention of colloids appear in the form of sharply 
defined angular crystals, and hence the rough, jagged crystals of oxa- 
late of lime or ammonio-magnesium phosphate. Heat intensifies the 
action of the colloids in causing precipitation of the dissolved salts, so 
that the temperature of the kidneys and bladder constitute favorable 
conditions. Colloids that are undergoing decomposition are also spe- 
cially powerful, so that the presence of bacteria or fungi causing fer- 
mentation are important factors. 

In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of urinary calculi, we 
must accord a high place to all those conditions which determine the 
presence of excess of mucus, albumen, pus, blood, kidney casts,' blood 
coloring matter, etc., in the urine. A catarrhal inflammation of the pel- 
vis of the kidney, the ureter of the bladder, generating excess of mucus 
or pus; inflammation of the kidneys causing the discharge into the 
urinary passages of blood, albumen or hyaline casts j inflammation of 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 159 

the liver, lungs, or other distant organ resulting in the escape of albu- 
men in the urine; disorders of the liver or of the blood-forming func- 
tions resulting in hematuria or hemoglobinuria; sprains or other in- 
juries to the back, or disease of the spinal marrow which cause the 
escape of blood with the urine ; the presence in the bladder of a bac- 
terian ferment which determines the decomposition of the mucus and 
urea, the evolution of ammonia and the consequent destruction of the 
protecting cellular (epithelial) lining of the bladder; or the irritation 
caused by the presence of an already formed calculus may produce the 
colloid or uncrystallizable body that proves so effective in the precipi- 
tation of stone or gravel. It has long been known that calculi will 
almost infallibly form around any foreign body introduced into the 
kidney or bladder, and I have seen a large calculous mass surrounding 
a splinter of an arrow that had penetrated and broken off in the body 
of a deer. The explanation is now satisfactory — the foreign body 
carries in with it bacteria which act as ferments upon the urine and 
mucus in addition to the mechanical injury caused by its presence. 
If such a body has been introduced through the solid tissues there is 
in addition the presence of the blood and lymph derived from the 
wounded structures. 

CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI. 

Urinary calculi are most conveniently divided according to the local- 
ity in which they are found. Thus we find first renal calculi, formed 
in the kidney (Plate xi, Fig. 1), and which for cattle must be again 
divided into calculi of the uriniferous tubes, and calculi of the pelvis. 
The second class are named uretral calculi, because they are found in 
the duct leading from the kidney to the bladder (ureter). The third 
class are the vesical calculi, from the bladder or vesicle in which they 
are found. The fourth class are the urethral calculi, and are found in 
the duct leading outward from the bladder through the penis (urethra). 
The fifth and last class are the preputial calculi, since they are found 
within the sheath of the penis (prepuce). 

Calculi may also be classed according to their chemical composition, 
and this has the advantage of suggesting the special cause of each as 
found in the food, water, soil, or general condition of health. This 
classification affords no guide to their location nor symptoms, as calculi 
of the same chemical composition may be found at any part of the uri- 
nary passages, as those formed in the kidney may pass on through all 
the various passages outward, unless it is found at any point of their 
progress that they have grown so large that the passage will not admit 
them. The following are among the concretions found in the various 
parts : 

(1) Coralline calculi. — These are of a dull white color and irregular 
surface, like coral. They are made up of hard and resistant layers 
evenly deposited around a central nucleus. (Plate xi, Fig. 3.) Their 



160 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

specific gravity is 1760, water being 1000, and they contain 74 per cent 
of carbonate of lime with some carbonate of magnesia, organic matter, 
and a trace of carbonate of iron. Yellowish-white, smooth, round cal- 
culi of the same chemical composition are met with. 

(2) Pearly calculi. — These are more frequent than the first named 
variety. They are very hard and smooth on the surface, reflecting a 
play of various colors after the fashion of a pearl. This peculiarity 
appears to be caused by the thinness and semi-transparency of the 
superposed layers. They have a specific gravity of 2109 to 2351, and 
nearly the same chemical composition as the coralline variety. Golding 
Bird found a specimen of this kind formed of carbonate of lime and 
organic matter only. 

(3) Green calculi. — Metalloid calculi. — These are usually small and 
numerous, as they are exceedingly common. They are of a very hard 
consistency, and have a clear, polished, greenish surface of almost 
metallic brilliancy. They have a specific gravity of 2301, and a compo- 
sition almost identical with the second variety. 

(4) White calculi. — Pure, white, smooth, lustrous calculi are rare. 
They have a specific gravity of 2307, and contain as much as 92 per 
cent of carbonate of lime with carbonate of magnesia and organic 
matter. 

(5) Amnionic- -magnesium calculi. — These are of a grayish color and a 
very rough crystalline surface, which proves very irritating to the 
mucous membrane. They have a specific gravity of 1109 to 1637, and 
are composed chiefly of ammonio-magnesium phosphate, oxalate of 
lime, and organic matter, with some little carbonate of lime and mag- 
nesia. 

(6) Siliceous calculi. — These are clear, smooth, and hard, and usually 
spherical. They have a specific gravity of 1265 to 1376, and contain 
57 per cent of silica with carbonates of iron and magnesia, organic 
matter, and traces of iron. In other specimens of siliceous calculi there 
was a specific gravity of 3122, and there was 79 to 85 per cent of car- 
bonate of lime together with carbonate of magnesia, and iron, silica, 
and organic matter. Others are almost exclusively made of silica. 

(7) Oxalate of lime calculi. — Mulberry calculi (Plate xi, Fig. 2). — These 
are characterized by their extremely rough, angular surface, formed by 
the octahedral crystals of oxalate of lime. Their specific gravity may 
be 3441, and they contain oxalate of lime to the extent of 81 per cent, 
together with carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic matter. 

(8) Gravel. — Pultaceous deposits. — Simple crystals may be met with 
at any point from the kidneys to the external opening at the end of the 
prepuce (sheath), and they may appear singly, as crystals, or they may 
accumulate in masses of fine spherical crystals almost like dirty pow- 
dered chalk suspended in water. In the ox this is especially common 
as a collection in the sheath, distending that into a soft doughy swelling. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 161 

FORMS OF CALCULI IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS. 

Apart from the rough crystalline surfaces of the calculi of oxalate of 
lime and ammonio-magnesium phosphate, the general tendency is to a 
smooth, round outline. At times, however, they show more or less flat- 
tening with rounded angular edges, caused by the contact and mutual 
friction of two calculi. Sometimes two or more stones lying together 
become united into one by a new external deposit, and the resulting 
mass then shows rounded swellings on opposite sides. The large cal- 
culi occupying the pelvis of the kidneys usually shows a central part 
having the outline of the main cavity of the pelvis and two or more 
projections that have been molded into corresponding branches or chan- 
nels which lead to corresponding lobes of the kidney. In winter and 
spring small concretions in the form of plates are often met with in the 
branches of the pelvis, having been formed and molded in the confined 
space between the projecting papilla and the surrounding cup-like 
branch of the pelvis. Finally, the pulp-like deposits in the sheath and 
elsewhere are made up of globular masses, individually so small as to 
be often practically microscopic. 

STONE IN THE KIDNEY — RENAL CALCULI. 

[Plate xi, Tig. I.] 

In an animal leading the quiet, uneventful life of the ox, stones of 
large size may be present in the kidney without producing any disorder 
appreciable to the people about him. In cattle fattened on dry food in 
winter, on our magnesian limestone of New York, it is exceptional to 
find the substance of the kidney free from calculi about the size of a 
grain of wheat or less, and standing out as white objects in the general 
red of the cut surface of the organ. Similarly around the papillae in 
the cup-like arms of the pelvis we find minute flattened or more or less 
rounded yellowish- white concretions. Even the large concretions may 
prove apparently harmless. I have a calculus several ounces in weight 
filling the entire pelvis of the kidney, which was found by accident in 
a fat carcass while being dressed. In work oxen, however, such concre- 
tions may give rise to symptoms of kidney disease, such as stiffness of 
the loins, shown especially in the acts of rising or turning, weakness of 
the hind parts when set to pull a heavy load, an irritability of the kid- 
neys, shown by the frequent passage of urine in small quantity, tender- 
ness of the loins, shown when they are pinched or lightly struck, and it 
may be the passage of blood or minute gritty masses with the urine. 
If the attack is severe, what is called renal colic (kidney colic) may be 
shown by frequent uneasy shifting of the hind limbs, shaking or twist- 
ing of the tail, looking round at the flanks, and lying down and rising 
again at short intervals without apparent cause. The frequent pass- 
age of urine, the blood or gritty masses contained in it, and perhaps 
the hard stony cylinders around the tufts of hair of the sheath, show 
that the source of the suffering is the urinary organs. In bad cases act- 
ive inflammation of the kidneys may set in. (See Nephritis.) 
24697 11 



162 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

URETERAL CALCULI. 

These are small stones which have passed from the pelvis of the 
kidney into the canal (ureter) leading from the kidney to the bladder, 
but being too large to pass on easily have blocked that canal and forced 
the urine back upon the kidney. The result is the production of symp- 
toms more violent than in renal calculi, though not varying, save in 
intensity, from those of renal colic. In case of complete and unrelieved 
obstruction, the secretion of the kidney on that side is entirely abolished, 
and it becomes the seat of passive congestion, and it may even be 
absorbed in greater part or as a whole, leaving only a fibrous sac con- 
taining fluid with a urinous odor. In small cattle, in which the oiled 
hand introduced into the last gut may reach the affected part, the dis- 
tended ureter may be felt as a tense, elastic cord, extending forward 
from the point of obstruction on the lateral wall of the pelvis and 
beneath the loins toward the kidney. If relief is obtained by the 
onward passage of the stone a free flow of urine usually follows, in 
the midst of which may often be found gritty masses. If the outlets 
from both kidneys are similarly blocked, the animal becomes poisoned 
by the retention in the blood of the elements of the urine, and by their 
reabsorption after secretion. 

Treatment of renal and ureteral calculi. — Treatment is not very suc- 
cessful, as only the smallest calculi can pass through the ureter and 
enter the bladder, and even if they should do so they are liable to a pro- 
gressive increase there, so that later they may cause the symptoms ot 
stone in the bladder. Fortunately, ordinary dairy, growing, or fatten- 
ing cattle rarely show evident symptoms of illness, and though they 
should do so they can usually be fattened and slaughtered before the 
health is seriously impaired. In work oxen the case is different, and 
acute symptoms may develop, but even then the animal may often be 
fitted for the butcher. When treatment is demanded it is primarily 
soothing and antispasmodic. Fomentations with warm water over the 
loins should be persisted in without intermission until relief has been 
secured. The soothing effect on the kidney will often relieve inflam- 
mation and irritation, should the stone be in that situation, while if in 
the ureter the warm fomentations will at once soothe irritation, relax 
spasm of the muscular coat of the canal, and favor an abundant secre- 
tion from the kidney, which, pressing on the obstructing stone, may 
slowly push it on into the bladder. Large doses of laudanum (2 ounces) 
or of solid extract of belladonna (2 drams) wall not only soothe the pain 
but relax the spasm and favor the onward passage of the calculus. The 
animal should be encouraged to drink large quantities of cool water to 
favor the free secretion of a very watery urine, which will not only serve 
to obviate irritation and continued deposit caused by a, highly concen- 
trated urine, but will press the stone onward toward the bladder, and 
even in certain cases will tend to disintegrate it by solution of some of 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 163 

its elements, and thus to favor its crumbling and expulsion. This is a 
principle which must never he lost sight of in the treatment of calculi : 
The immersion of the stone in a liquid of a lower specific gravity than 
that in which it has formed and grown tends to dissolve out the more 
soluble of its component parts, and thus to destroy its density and 
cohesion at all points, and thereby to favor its complete disintegration 
and expulsion. This explains why cattle taken from a herd on our 
magnesian limestone in spring, after the long dry feeding of winter, 
usually furnish renal calculi, while cattle from the same herd in the 
fall, after a summer's run on a succulent pasture, are almost aways free 
from concretions. The abundance of liquid taken in the green food and 
expelled through the kidneys and the low density or watery nature of 
the urine have so opened the texture and destroyed the density of the 
smaller stones and gravel that they have all been disintegrated and 
removed. This, too, is the main reason why benefit is derived from 
a prolonged stay at mineral springs by the human victims of gravel. 
If they had swallowed the same number of quarts of pure water at 
home, and distributed it at suitable intervals over each day, they 
would have benefited largely without a visit to the springs. 

It follows from what has been just said that a succulent diet, includ- 
ing a large amount of water (gruels, sloppy mashes, turnips, beets, 
potatoes, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses), is an impor- 
tant factor in the relief of the milder forms of stone and gravel. 

Prevention of calculus especially demands this supply of water and 
watery rations on all soils and in all conditions in which there is a 
predisposition to this disease. It must also be sought by attempts to 
obviate all those conditions mentioned above as causative of the malady. 
Sometimes good rainwater can be furnished in limestone districts, but 
putrid or bad smelling rainwater is to be avoided as probably more 
injurious than that from the limestone. Unsuccessful attempts have 
been made to dissolve calculi by alkaline salts and mineral acids respect- 
ively, but their failure as a remedy does not necessarily condemn them 
as preventives. One dram of caustic potash or of hydrochloric acid 
may be given daily in the drinking water. In diametrically opposite 
ways these attack and decompose the less soluble salts and form new 
ones which are more soluble and therefore little disposed to precipitate 
in the solid form. Both are beneficial as increasing the secretion of 
urine. In cases where the diet has been too highly charged with phos- 
phates (wheat bran, etc.), these aliments must be restricted and water 
allowed ad libitum. Where the crystals passed with the urine are the 
sharp angular (octahedral) ones of oxalate of lime, then the breathing 
should be made more active by exercise, and any disease of the lungs 
subjected to appropriate treatment. If. the crystals are triangular 
prisms of ammonia-magnesium phosphate or star-like forms with feathery 
rays, the indications are to withhold the food or water that abounds in 
magnesia and check the fermentation in the urine by attempts to destroy 



164 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

its bacteria. In the latter direction plenty of pure water, diuretics, and 
a daily dose of oil of turpentine in milk, or a dose thrice a day of a 
solution containing one-tenth grain each of biniodide of mercury and 
iodide of potassium would be indicated. 

In considering the subject of prevention it must never be forgotten 
that any disease of a distant organ which determines the passage from 
the blood into the urine of albumen or any other colloid (uncrystalliz- 
able) body is strongly provocative of calculus, and should, if possible, 
be corrected. Apart from cases due to geological formation, faulty 
feeding, and other causes, the grand preventive of calculus is a long 
summer's pasturage of succulent grasses, or in winter a diet of ensilage 
or other succulent food. 

The calculi formed in part of silica demand special notice. This 
agent is secreted in the urine in the form of silicate of potash and is 
thrown down as insoluble silica when a stronger acid displaces it by 
combining with the potash to its exclusion. In cases of siliceous calculi, 
accordingly, the appropriate chemical prevention is caustic potash, 
which being present in the free state would attract to itself any free 
acid and leave the silica in its soluble condition as silicate of potash. 

STONE IN THE BLADDER — VESICAL CALCULUS — URETHRAL CALCULUS. 

Stone in the bladder may be of any size, but in the ox does not 
usually exceed half an inch in diameter. There may, however, be a 
number of small calculi; indeed, they are sometimes so small and 
numerous as to form a small pulpy magma by which the bladder is 
considerably distended. 

The symptoms of stone in the bladder may be absent until one of the 
masses escapes into the urethra, but when this occurs the escape of 
urine is prevented, or it is allowed to pass in drops or dribblets only, 
and the effect of such obstruction becomes manifest. The point of 
obstruction is not always the same, but it is most frequently at the 
S-shaped curve of the penis, just above the testicles or scrotum. In 
cows and heifers the urethra is so short and becomes so widely dilated 
during the urination that the calculi easily escape in the flow of liquid 
and dangerous symptoms practically never appear. 

Even in the male the signs of illness are at first very slight. A close 
observer may notice the cylinders of hard earthy materials encircling 
the tufts of hair at the opening of the prepuce. It may further be 
observed that the stall remains dry and that the animal has not been 
seen to pass water when out of doors. The tail may at times be gently 
raised and contractions of the muscle (accelerator urinw) beneath the 
anus (Plate ix, Pig. 2) may take place in a rythmical or pulsating man- 
ner. But as a rule no symptom is noticed for a couple of days, only the 
animal is lacking in his usual spirits. By this time the constantly 
accumulating urine has distended the bladder beyond its power of 
resistance and a rupture occurs, allowing the urine to escape into the 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 165 

cavity of the abdomen. Then dullness increases; the animal lies down 
most of his time; he becomes stupid and sometimes drowsy, with red- 
dish brown congestion of the lining' membrane of the eyelids ; pressure 
on the abdomen causes pain, flinching, and perhaps groaning, and the 
lowest part of the belly fluctuates more and more as the escaping urine 
accumulates in greater and greater amount. If at this stage the oiled 
hand is introduced into the rectum (last gut) the animal flinches when 
pressure is made downward on the floor of the pelvis, and no round 
distended bladder is felt. If the same examination is made prior to 
the rupture the rounded, tense, elastic bladder is felt extending for- 
ward into the abdomen containing one or two gallons of liquid. There 
may be uneasy shifting of the hind limbs and twisting of the tail, also 
frequent lying down and rising, but these symptoms are exceptional. 

When the obstruction is low down between the thighs (at the S- 
shaped flexure), the line of the pulsating urethra from the anus down- 
ward may be felt distended with liquid, and though it is seldom easy 
to distinguish the exact seat of the stone by the hard swelling of the 
urethra, yet there is usually tenderness at the point of obstruction, and 
from this it may be accurately located. 

The treatment of stone in the bladder or urethra consists in the 
removal of the stone by incision and the use of forceps. (Plate xi, Fig. 4.) 
When the stone has been arrested at the S-shaped flexure just above 
the scrotum, the patient being lean, the thickened tender part of the 
penis may be seized between the fingers and thumb of the left hand, 
while the calculus is exposed by a free incision with the knife held in 
the right. If there is no other obstruction between this point and the 
bladder, and if the latter has not yet ruptured, a flow of urine should 
take place from the opening. If there is no escape of liquid a catheter 
or sound, one-fourth of an inch in diameter, must be passed up through 
the canal (urethra) until it is arrested by the next stone, on which a 
similar incision should then be made to effect its extraction. In case 
the stone has been arrested in the portion of the urethra which is in 
front of the arch of the hip bone and inside the pelvis, it can only be 
reached by making an opening into the urethra beneath the anus and 
over the arch of the hip bone, and from this orifice exploring the urethra 
with fine forceps to the neck of the bladder or until the stone has been 
reached and extracted. The operation requires a very accurate knowl- 
edge of the parts, owing to the small size of the canal (urethra) to be 
opened and the great thickness of erectile tissue to be cut through, 
while the free flow of blood is blinding to the operator. A staff should 
always be passed up through the urethra from the lower wound if such 
has been made, or, in case of its absence, through the whole length of 
the penis, that organ having been drawn out of its sheath until the 
S-shaped curve has been effaced and the course of the canal rendered 
straight. Upon the end of this staff the incision can be made with 
far more confidence and certainty. The operation can only be under- 



166 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

taken by a skilled veterinary anatomist, 'but the hints given above 
may be valuable in showing the stock owner when he is being properly 
served in such a case. 

In outlying districts, where no skilled operator can be had, a trans- 
verse incision may be made with a clean sharp knife through the root 
of the penis, just over the arch of the hip bone, when the urine will 
flow out in a full stream. The attendant bleeding may be ignored, or 
if profuse it may be checked by packing the wound firmly with cotton 
wool for some hours. The urine will continue to escape by the wound, 
and the ox should be fattened for the butcher. 

The immediate relief is not to be looked upon as a permanent cure, 
as the calculi in the affected ox are usually numerous, and later attacks 
are, therefore, to be looked for. Hence it is desirable to fatten and 
kill such cases after a successful operation. If a breeding animal is too 
valuable to be killed he should be subjected to preventive measures, as 
laid down under Stone in the Kidney. 

It should be added that when the bladder is filled with a soft magma 
a catheter may be introduced through the whole length of the urethra, 
to be employed in pumping water into the bladder. This water is 
extracted through the same channel when it has been charged with 
the suspended solids by manipulations of the bladder with the oilep 
hand introduced through the rectum. 

Calculi or gravel in the prepuce or sheath. — This is usually a collection 
of gravel, or a soft putty like material which causes a distinct swelling 
of the sheath and gives it a soft, doughy feeling when handled. It may 
be removed in part by the oiled fingers introduced into the cavity, 
assisted by manipulation from without, or a tube may be inserted 
behind the collection and water pumped in until the whole mass has 
been evacuated. Should even this fail of success the sheath may be 
slit open from its orifice back in the median line below until the offend- 
ing matter can be reached and removed. In all such cases the interior 
of the sheath should be finally lubricated with sweet oil or vaseline. 
It is unnecessary to stitch up the wound made in the sheath. (See 
Inflammation of the Sheath.) 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
Plate IX: 

Fig. 1. Kidney of the ox. Taken from Handbuch des Vergleiclienden Anatomie des 
Haus Saugethiere, Vol. 7, 1890: A, renal artery carrying blood into the kid- 
ney; V, renal vein carrying blood from the kidney back to the heart; H, 
ureter, the tube carrying the urine from kidney to bladder. It is formed by 
the union of a number of branches which begin as cups (calices), each 
inclosing the tip of a conical mass of tissue from which the urine exudes. 
1, Showing such papilla through the cups or calyx surrounding it ; 2, papil- 
lae with the cups inclosing them cut in half to show their relation to each 
other. 

Fig. 2. The male genital organs of the ox. Taken from Leisering, Mueller & 
Ellenberger, Handbuch des Verg. Anat. des Haws Saugethiere: 1, scrotum, or 
the pouch containing the testicles ; 2, tunica vaginalis, the serous membrane 
enveloping the testicles ; 3', right testicle, outer view ; 3', left testicle, inner 
view ; 4, epididymis, or the beginning of the excretory canal of the testicle ; 
4', globus major, or the head of the epididymis; 4", globus minor, or the tail 
of the epididymis; 5, vas deferens, the duct through which the seminal 
fluid reaches the ejaculatory ducts; 5', pelvic dilatation of the vas deferens ; 
6, vesicula seminalis. The vesicular seminales are two oval pouches, which, 
in addition to their own secretions, receive the semen conveyed by the sem- 
inal ducts and hold it in reserve until copulation ; 7, membranous or intra- 
pelvic portion of the urethral canal covered by Wilson's muscle; 8, part of 
the prostate gland covered by Wilson's muscle; 9, Cowper's gland. This 
gland, like the prostate gland, secretes a fluid which is thrown into the 
urethral canal in abundance immediately before ejaculation; the expulsion 
of the semen is by this means facilitated; 10, ejaculator seminis, or accel- 
erator urinae muscle ; 11, penis ; 11', cut portion of same ; 12, cut suspensory 
ligaments of penis; 13, sheath, or prepuce laid open; 14, retractor muscles 
of sheath; 15, cremaster muscle cut at superior extremity; 16, duplicature 
of peritoneum; 17, ureters carrying urine from the kidneys to the bladder. 
Plate X: 

Fig. 1. In this figure the minute apparatus for the secretion, collection, and dis- 
charge of the urine into the pelvis of the kidney (see preceding plate) is 
shown. The course is as follows : The urine is secreted from the blood-ves- 
sels in the little round bodies called glomeruli (12), and by the minute cells 
in the curved tubes (11, 9, 10, 8), and passes through the convoluted and 
straight tubes (7, 6) into the larger tube (1), and then out into the pelvis, 
thence through the ureters iuto the bladder. The fluid and salts dissolved 
in the urine are taken from the blood, and the minute blood vessels are there- 
fore very abundant in the kidneys, as is shown by the branches and network 
on the left of the figure. The blood passes into the kidney in the artery 
(13), then divides into branches which pass into the glomeruli (12) and also 

167 



168 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Plate X — Continued. 

form networks around the secreting tubules (11, 9). The urine and salts 
pass from these vessels through the cells lining the tubules into the latter, 
and are discharged as described above. The blood is again collected in veins 
drawn black in the figure. 

Fig. 2. Illustrates the manner in which the blood is distributed in the glomeru- 
lus/, and also to the secreting tubules (e). 

Fig. 3. Shows the relation between the blood vessel in the glomerulus (e) and 
the tubule which conducts the urine therein secreted from the blood vessel; 
(c) represents a glomerulus from which the urinary tubule has been removed. 
Plate XI: 

Fig. 1. Calculus or stone from the kidney. These are located in the pelvis or 
portion of the ureter receiving the urine. The prolongations are casts of 
the branches of the pelvis. See the plates of the kidney for further descrip- 
tion. 

Fig. 2. Calculus made up of oxalate of lime magnified 215 times. 

Fig. 3. Phosphatic calculus containing a nucleus of uric acid, sawn through to 
show concentric layers. 

Fig. 4. Straight forceps used in removing stones from the bladder. 

Fig. 5. Casts of the minute tuhules of the kidney found in the urine in various 
kinds of kidney disease. Highly magnified. 



PLATE IX. 



>^fel^ 




m& H 




KIDNEY AND GENERATIVE ORGANS 



PLATE X. 






Gee. Marx, after Dj^boval 

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY. 



PLATE XI. 




X 275 





<$'' 




Haines del. after Hurirel D!Arboval. 

CALCULI OF KIDNEY AND BLADDER. 



Pftinrme Co. Bosron. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 



By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 



Diseases of the generative organs are practically confined, to animals 
which are kept for reproduction and the dairy. The castration of the 
hull condemns these organs to inactivity and protects them from the 
many causes of injury attendant on the engorged blood-vessels in the 
frequent periods of sexual excitement, on the exposure to mechanical 
violence, and on the exposure to infective inoculation. In three 
respects the castrated male is especially subject to disease: (1) To 
inflammation and tumefaction of the cut end of the cord that supported 
the testicle and of the loose connective tissue of the scrotum; (2) to 
inflammation of the sheath and penis from the accumulation of gravel 
in the former, from which the penis is not usually protruded in passing 
water: and (3) to bruising, abrasion, and inflammation of the sheath 
and penis during suspension in the stocks for the purpose of shoeing. 
Apart from these the ox is practically almost exempt from the inflam- 
mations and injuries of the genital organs. The same applies to the 
castrated heifer. Inflammation may occur in the broad ligament of the 
womb whence the ovary has been removed, or inflammation in the 
abdominal cavity (peritonitis) in case the operation has been performed 
through the flank, as it usually is in the young heifer. Apart from 
these the castrated heifer is practically immune from any trouble of the 
generative apparatus. Even the virgin heifer is little subject to such 
troubles, though she is not exempt from inflammations, and above all, 
morbid growths in the ovaries which remain in place and are function- 
ally very active after the first year, or in precocious animals after the 
first few months of life. The breeding cow on the other hand is sub- 
jected to all the disturbances attendant on the gradual enlargement of 
the womb, the diversion of a large mass of blood to its walls, the con- 
stant drain of nutrient materials of all kinds for the nourishment of the 
fetus, the risks attendant and consequent on abortion and parturi- 
tion, the clangers of infection from the bull, the risks of sympathetic 
disturbance in case of serious diseases of other organs, but preemi- 
nently of the urinary organs and the udder, and finally the sudden 
extreme derangements of the circulation and of the nervous functions 

169 



170 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

which attend on the sudden revulsion of a great mass of blood from the 
walls of the contracting womb into the body at large immediately after 
calving. 

In reviewing this class of diseases, therefore, we have to note, first, 
that they are almost exclusively restricted to breeding animals; and, 
second, that in keeping with the absolute difference of the organs in the 
male and female we find two essentially distinct lists of diseases affect- 
ing the two sexes. 

EXCESS OF VENEREAL DESIRE — SATYRIASIS IN MALE — NYMPHOMANIA 

IN FEMALE. 

This may occur in the male from too frequent sexual intercourse, or 
from injury and congestion of the base of the brain (vasodilator center 
in the medulla), or of the posterior end of the spinal cord, or it may be 
kept up by congestion or inflammation of the testicles or of the mucous 
membrane covering the penis. It may be manifested by a constant or 
frequent erection, by attempts at sexual connection, and sometimes by 
the discharge of semen without connection. In bad cases the feverish- 
ness and restlessness lead to loss of flesh, emaciation, and physical 
weakness. 

It is, however, in the female especially that this morbid desire is 
most noticeable and injurious. It may be excited by the stimulating 
quality of the blood in cows fed to excess on highly nitrogenous food, 
as the seeds of the bean, pea, vetch, tare, wheat bran, middlings, etc. 
especially in the case of such as have no free exercise in the fields, and 
are subject to constant association with a vigorous young bull. A more 
frequent cause is the excitation or congestion of some part of the geni- 
tal organs. Disease of the ovaries is preeminently the cause, and this 
may be by the formation of cysts (sacs containing liquid), or of solid 
tumors or degenerations, or, more commonly than all, the deposition of 
tubercle. Indeed, in case of tuberculosis attacking the abdominal 
organs of cows the ovaries or the serous membranes that support and 
cover them (the broad ligaments of the womb) are peculiarly subject 
to attack and the animal has constant sexual excitement, incessantly 
riding or being ridden by other cattle, having no leisure to eat nor chew 
the cud, but moving restlessly, wearing the flesh off its bones and grad- 
ually wasting. In some localities these cows are known as " bullers," 
because they are nearly always disposed to take the bull, but they do 
not conceive, or if they do they are subject to early abortions. They 
are therefore useless alike for the dairy and for the feeder, unless the 
removal of the ovaries subdues the sexual excitement, when in the 
absence of tuberculous disease elsewhere they may be fattened for the 
butcher. 

Among the other sources of irritation charged with causing nympho- 
mania are tumors and cancers of the womb, rigid closure of the neck of 
the womb, so that conception can not occur and the frequent services 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 171 

by the male stimulate the unsatisfied appetite, and inflammation and a 
purulent discharge from the womb or vagina. 

The treatment in each case will vary with the cause, and is most satis- 
factory when that cause is a removable one. Overfeeding on richly 
nitrogenous food can be stopped, exercise in the open field secured, dis- 
eased ovaries may be removed (see Castration, p. 317), catarrhs of the 
womb and passages overcome by antiseptic astringent injections (see 
Leucorrhoea), and tumors of the womb may often be detached and 
extracted, the mouth of that organ having been first dilated by sponge 
tents or otherwise. The rubber dilator (impregnator) though some- 
times helpful in the mare is rarely available for the cow, owing to the 
different condition of the mouth of the womb. 

DIMINUTION OR LOSS OF VENEREAL DESIRE — ANAPHRODISIA. 

This will occur in either sex from low condition and ill health. Long- 
standing chronic diseases of important internal organs leading to 
emaciation and weakness, or a prolonged semi-starvation in winter, 
may be a sufficient cause. It is, however, much more common as the 
result of degeneration or extensive and destructive disease of the secret- 
ing organs (testicles, ovaries), which elaborate the male and female 
sexual products respectively. Such diseases are therefore a common 
cause of sterility in both sexes. The old bull, fat and lazy, becomes 
sluggish and unreliable in serving, and finally gets to be useless for 
breeding purposes. This is not due to his weight and clumsiness alone, 
but largely to the fatty degeneration of his testicles and their excretory 
ducts, which prevents the due formation and maturation of the semen. 

If he has been kept in extra high condition for exhibition in the show 
ring this disqualification comes upon him sooner and becomes more 
irremediable. 

Similarly the overfed, inactive cow, and above all the show cow, fails 
to come in heat at the usual intervals, shows little disposition to take 
the bull, and fails to conceive when served. Her trouble is the same 
in kind, namely, fatty degeneration of the ovaries and of their excretory 
ducts (Fallopian tubes), which prevents the formation or maturation of 
the ovum, or when it has • formed; hinders its descent into the womb. 
Another common defect in such old fat cows is a rigid closure of the 
mouth of the womb, which X3revents conception, even if the ovum 
reaches the interior of that organ, and even if the semen is discharged 
into the vagina. 

The true preventive of such conditions is to be found in a sound 
hygiene. The breeding animal should be of adult age, neither over nor 
under fed, but well fed and moderately exercised; in other words, the 
most vigorous health should be sought, not only that a strong race may 
be propagated, but that the whole herd, or nearly so, may breed with 
certainty. Fleming gives 79 per cent as the general average of cows 
that are found to breed in one year. Here more than a fifth of the 



172 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

progeny is sacrificed, and a fifth of the product of the dairy. With 
careful management the proportion of breeders should approach 100 
per cent. The various local and general obstacles to conception should 
be carefully investigated and removed. The vigorous health which 
comes from a sufficiently liberal diet and abundant exercise should be 
solicited, and that comparative bloodlessness and weakness which 
advances with undue fattening should be sedulously avoided. In bull 
or cow which is becoming unduly fat and showing indications of sexual 
indifference the treatment must be active. Turning out on a short pas- 
ture where it must work hard for a living will often suffice. The bull 
which can not be turned out to pasture may sometimes be utilized in 
the yoke or tread power, or he may be kept a part of his time in a field 
or paddock chained by the ring in his nose to a strong wire extending 
from one side of the lot to the other, attached securely to two trees or 
posts. The wire should be higher than the back of the bull, which wdl 
move from end to end at frequent intervals. If he is indisposed to take 
sufficient exercise in this way he may be safely driven. An instance of 
the value of exercise in these incipient cases of fatty degeneration is 
often quoted. The cow "Dodona," condemned as barren at Earl Spen- 
cer's, was sold cheap to Jonas Webb, who had her driven by road a 
distance of 120 miles to his farm at Wilbraham, soon after which she 
became pregnant. In advanced cases, however, in which the fatty 
degeneration is complete, recovery is impossible. 

In case of rigid closure of the mouth of the womb the only resort is 
dilatation. This is far more difficult and uncertain in the cow than in 
the mare. The neck of the womb is longer, is often tortuous in its 
course, and its walls so approximated to each other and so rigid that it 
may be all but impossible to follow it, and there is always danger of 
perforating its walls and opening into the cavity of the abdomen, or 
short of that of causing inflammation and a new rigid fibrous formation 
which, on healing, leaves matters worse than before. The opening must 
be carefully made with the finger, and when that has entered the womb 
further dilatation may be secured by inserting a sponge tent or by 
careful stretching with a mechanical dilator. (Plate xx, Fig. 6.) 

STERILITY FROM OTHER CAUSES. 

The question as to whether a bull is a sure stock-getter and whether 
a cow is a breeder are so important that it would be wrong to pass over 
other prominent causes of sterility. Breeding at too early an age 
is a common source of increasing weakness of constitution which 
has obtained in certain breeds. Jerseys have especially been made 
the victims of this mistake, the object being to establish the highest 
milking powers in the smallest obtainable body which will demand the 
least material and outlay for its constant repair of waste. With suc- 
cess in this line there has been the counterbalancing disadvantage of 
impaired vigor, with too often lessened fertility as well as increased 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE OEGANS. 173 

predisposition to disease. When the heifers of the race have for gener- 
ation after generation been bred under a year old, the demand for the 
nourishment of the fetus is too great a drain on the immature animal, 
which accordingly remains small and stunted. As it fails to develop 
in size so every organ fails to be nourished to perfection. Similarly 
with the immature bull put to too many cows ; he fails to develop his 
full size, vigor, or stamina, and transfers his acquired weakness to his 
progeny. An increasing number of barren females and an increasing- 
proclivity to abortions are the necessary results of both courses. When 
this early breeding has occurred accidentally it is well to dry up the 
dam just after calving, and to avoid having her served again until full 
grown. 

Some highly-fed and plethoric females seem to escape conception by 
the very intensity of the generative ardor. The frequent passage of 
urine accompanied by contractions of the womb and vagina and a pro- 
fuse secretion from their surfaces, leads to the expulsion of the semen 
after it has been lodged in the genital passages. This may be reme- 
died somewhat by bleeding the cow shortly before putting to the bull, 
so as to dimmish the richness and stimulating quality of the blood ; or 
better by giving a pound and a half of Epsom salts a day or two before 
she comes in heat, and subjecting her at the same time to a spare diet. 
Should the excessive ardor of the cow not be controllable in this way 
she may be shut up for a day or two, until the heat is passing off, when 
under the lessened excitement the semen is more likely to be retained. 

The various diseases of the ovaries, their tubes, the womb, the tes- 
ticles and their excretory ducts, as referred to under Excess of Genera- 
tive Ardor, are causes of barrenness. In this connection it may be 
named that the discbarges consequent on calving are fatal to the vitality 
of semen introduced before these have ceased to flow, hence service too 
soon after calving, or that of a cow which has had the womb or genital 
passages injured so as to keep up a muco-purulent flow until the animal 
comes in heat, is liable to fail of conception. Any such discharge should 
be first arrested by repeated injections as for leucorrhcea, after which 
the male may be admitted. 

Feeding on a very saccharine diet, which greatly favors the deposition 
of fat, seems to have an even more direct effort in preventing conception 
during such regimen. Among other causes of barrenness are all those 
that favor abortion, ergoted grasses, smutty wheat or corn, laxative or 
diuretic drinking water, and any improper or musty feed that causes 
indigestions, colics, and diseases of the urinary organs, notably gravel; 
also savin, rue, cantharides and all other irritants of the bowels or 
kidneys. 

Hermaphrodites are barren, of course, as their sexual organs are not 
distinctively either male or female. The heifer born as a twin with a 
bull is usually hermaphrodite and barren. But the animals of either sex 
in which development of the organs is arrested before they are fully 



174 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

matured, remain as in the male or female prior to puberty, and are barren. 
Bulls with both testicles retained within the abdomen may go through 
the form of serving a cow, but the service is unfruitful; the sperma- 
tozoa are not fully elaborated. So I have examined a heifer Avith a 
properly formed but very small womb, and an extremely narrow vagina 
and vulva, the walls of which were very muscular, that could never be 
made to conceive. A post-mortem examination would probably have 
disclosed an imperfectly formed ovary incapable of bringing ova to 
maturity. 

A bull and cow that have been too closely inbred in the same line for 
generations may prove sexually incompatible and unable to generate 
together, though both are abundantly prolific when coupled with animals 
of other strains of blood. 

Finally a bull may prove unable to get stock, not from any lack of sex- 
ual development, but from disease of other organs (back, loins, hind 
limbs), which renders him unable to mount with the energy requisite to 
the perfect service. 

CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES — OECHITIS. 

This usually results from blows or other direct injuries, but may be 
the result of excessive service or of the formation of some new growth 
(tumor) in the gland tissue. The bull moves stiffly, with straddling 
gait, and the right or left half of the scrotum in which the affected tes- 
ticle lies is swollen, red, and tender, and the gland is drawn up within 
the sac and dropped down again at frequent intervals. It may be treated 
by rest, 1£ pounds Epsom salts given in 4 quarts water, by a restricted 
diet of some succulent food; by continued fomentations with warm 
water by means of sponges or rags sustained by a sling passed around 
the loins and back between the hind legs. The pain may be allayed 
by smearing with a solution of opium or of extract of belladonna. 
Should a soft point appear indicating the formation of matter it may 
be opened with a sharp lancet and the wound treated daily with a solu- 
tion of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a half pint of water. Usually, 
however, when the inflammation has proceeded to this extent the gland 
will be ruined for purposes of procreation and must be cut out. (See 
Castration, p. 316.) 

INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH. 

While this may occur in bulls from infection during copulation and 
from bruises, blows, and other mechanical injuries, the condition is 
more common in the ox in connection with the comparative inactivity 
of the parts. The sheath has a very small external o])ening, the mucous 
membrane of which is studded with sebaceous glands secreting a thick 
unctuous matter of a strong, heavy odor. Behind this orifice is a dis- 
tinct pouch, in which this unctuous matter is liable to accumulate when 
the penis is habitually drawn back. Moreover, the sheath has two mus- 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE OKGANS. 175 

cles which lengthen it (protractors) passing into it from the region of 
the navel, and two that shorten it (retractors) passing into it from the 
lower surface of the pelvic bones above. (Plate ix, Fig. 2.) The protract- 
ors keep the sheath stretched so that it habitually covers the penis, 
while the retractors shorten it up in the act of service, so that the penis 
can project to its full extent. In stud bulls the frequent protrusion of 
the erect and enlarged penis and the retraction and dilatation of the 
opening of the sheath serve to empty the pouch and prevent any accumu- 
lation of sebaceous matter or urine. In the ox, on the other hand, the 
undeveloped and inactive penis is usually drawn back so as to leave 
the anterior preputial pouch empty, so that the sebaceous matter has 
space to accumulate and is never expelled by the active retraction of 
the sheath and protrusion of the erect penis in service. Again, the ox 
rarely protrudes the tip of the penis in urination, the urine is discharged 
into the preputial pouch and lodges and decomposes there so that there 
is a great liability to the precipitation of its earthy salts in the form of 
gravel. The decomposing ammoniacal urine, the gritty crystals pre- 
cipitated from it, and the fetid, rancid, sebaceous matter set up inflam- 
mation in the delicate mucous membrane lining the passage. The mem- 
brane is thickened, reddened, rendered friable and ultimately ulcerated, 
and the now narrowed sheath is blocked by the increasing mass of 
sebaceous and urinous material and the decomposing mucus and pus. 
The penis can no longer be protruded, the urine escapes in a small 
stream through the narrowing sheath, and finally the outlet is com- 
pletely blocked and the urine distends the back part of the sheath. 
This will fluctuate on being handled, and soon the unhealthy inflam- 
mation extends on each side of it, causing a thick, doughy, tender 
swelling under the belly and between the thighs. The next step in the 
morbid course is over-distension of the bladder, with the occurrence of 
colicky pains, looking at the flanks, uneasy movements of the hind limbs, 
raising or twisting of the tail, jmlsatory contractions of the urethra 
under the anus, and finally a false appearance of relief, which is caused 
by rupture of the bladder. Before this rupture takes place the dis- 
tended bladder may press on the rectum and obstruct the passage of 
the bowel dejections. Two mistakes are therefore probable : first, that 
the bowels alone are to be relieved, and, second, that the trouble 
is obstruction of the urethra by a stone. Hence the need of examining 
the sheath and pushing the finger into its opening to see that there is 
no obstruction there, in all cases of retention of urine, over-distended 
bladder, or blocked rectum in the ox. The disease may be acute or 
chronic, the first by reason of acute adhesive inflammation blocking 
the outlet, the second by gradual thickening and ulceration of the 
sheath and blocking by the sebaceous and calculous accretions. 

The treatment of this affection will depend on the stage. If recent 
and no instant danger of rupture of the bladder, the narrow opening of 
the sheath should be freely cut open in the median line below, and the 



176 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

sac emptied out with a finger or spoon, after ■ which, it should be thor- 
oughly washed with tepid water. To make the cleansing more thor- 
ough a catheter or a small rubber tube may be inserted well back into 
the sheath, and water may be forced through it from a syringe or a fun- 
nel inserted into the other end of the tube and considerably elevated. A 
fountain syringe, which should be found in every house, answers admira- 
bly. The sheath may be daily washed out with tepid water, with a 
suds made with castile soap, or with a weak solution of sulphate of zinc 
(one-half dram to a quart of water). If these attentions are impossible, 
most cases, after cleansing, will do well if merely driven through clean 
water up to the belly once a day. 

In case the disease has progressed to absolute obstruction, with the 
bladder ready to rupture any moment, no time must be lost in opening 
into the urethra with a sharp knife over the bony arch under the anus, 
where the pulsations are seen in urinating. This incision is best made 
in the median line from above downward, but in the absence of a skill- 
ful operator a transverse incision with a sharp knife over the bone in 
the median line until the urine flows with a gush is better than to let 
the patient die. Considerable blood will be lost and the wound will 
heal tardily, but the ox will be preserved. Then the slitting and cleans- 
ing of the sheath can be done at leisure as described above. In case 
the bladder is ruptured the case is hopeless. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH AND PENIS FROM BRUISING. 

This also is an affection of work oxen, caused by the pressure 
and friction of the sling when the animals are held in the stocks for 
shoeing. This crushing of both sheath and penis for half an hour or 
more leads to the development, some hours later, of a hard, hot, and 
painful swelling, extending from the scrotum as far as the opening of 
the sheath. Fever sets in, with dry muzzle, redeyes, hard, full, rapid 
pulse, accelerated breathing and elevated temperature. The ox stands 
obstinately with his hind legs drawn apart and urine falling drop by 
drop from the sheath. Appetite and rumination are suspended. In 
twenty-four hours there may be indications of advancing gangrene 
(mortification), the swelling becomes cold, soft, and doughy; it may 
even crack slightly from the presence of gas, a reddish brown fetid 
liquid oozes from the swelling, especially around the edges, and if the 
animal survives it is only with a great loss of substance of the sheath 
and penis. 

The prevention of such an injury is easy. It is only necessary to see 
that the slings shall not press upon the posterior part of the abdomen. 
They must be kept in front of the sheath. 

Treatment, to be effective, must be prompt and judicious. Put a 
strap around the patient with soft pads in contact with the affected 
parts, constantly soaked in cold water for at least twenty-four hours. 
A pound or two of Epsom salts in 4 quarts of hot water should also be 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 177 

given. The second day the parts may be washed with 1 quart of witch- 
hazel (extract), 2 drains sugar of lead, and 1 ounce laudanum, or the 
cold water irrigations may be continued if the active inflammation per- 
sists. In case the swelling continues hard and resistant it may be 
pricked at the most prominent points to the depth of one-third of 
an iuch, with a lancet first dipped in dilute carbolic acid, and the 
whole surface should be washed frequently with chlorine water or 
other antiseptic. 

When softening occurs in the center of a hard mass and fluctuation 
can be felt between two fingers pressed on different parts of such soft- 
ening, it should be freely opened to let out the putrid pus and the cavity 
should be syringed often with chlorine water. 

In bad cases extensive sloughs of dead skin, of the whole wall of the 
sheath, and even of the. penis, may take place, which will require care- 
ful antiseptic treatment. The soaking of the urine into the inflamed 
and softened tissue, and the setting up of putrefactive action not only 
endangers great destruction of the tissues from putrid inflammation, 
but even threatens life itself from a general blood poisoning (septicae- 
mia.) Every case should have skillful treatment to meet its various 
phases, but in the severe ones this is most urgently demanded. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA — GONORRHOEA. 

Like other males, the bull sometimes suffers from inflammation of the 
canal which conveys the urine through the penis, and forms a conse- 
quent whitish muco-purulent discharge. It may have originated in 
gravels, the excitement of too frequent service, infection from a cow 
with leucorrhoaa, or from extension of inflammation from the sheath. 
Beside the oozing of the whitish liquid from the end of the penis and 
sheath, there is tenderness and pain when handled, and while there is 
no actual arrest of the urine, its flow is subject to frequent voluntary 
checks, as the scalding liquid irritates the tender surface. If recognized 
before the discharge sets in a dose of 1£ pounds of Epsom salts, and 
local warm fomentations would be appropriate. After the onset of the 
whitish discharge a daily injection into the penis of a solution of 20 
grains of permanganate of potash in a pint of water will be beneficial. 

WARTS AND PAPILLARY GROWTHS ON THE PENIS. 

These are not frequent in bull or ox. They may interfere with the 
protrusion of the organ from its sheath or with service, and always give 
rise to a bad smelling discharge. They may be twisted off with the 
thumb and forefinger, or cut off with a pair of scissors and the seat 
burned with a pencil of lunar caustic. To get hold of the penis in the 
bull bring him up to a cow. In the ox it will be necessary to push it 
out by manipulation through the sheath. In difficult cases the narrow 
opening of the sheath may be slit ox^en. 
24697 12 



178 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

WOUNDS OF THE PENIS. 

The most common wounds are those sustained by blows of horns, 
sticks, etc. The blood-vessels and sacs are ruptured to a greater or less 
extent and considerable swellings filled with coagulated blood and 
inflammatory products occur, leading to distortion of the organ, audit 
may be to the impossibility of protruding it. A lotion of a dram of 
alum in a quart of water may be applied (injected into the sheath, if 
necessary), and a large sponge constantly irrigated by a stream of cold 
water may be kept applied by means of a surcingle to the outer side 
of the sheath. Incisions are rarely applicable to an organ of this kind, 
but in case of the existence of an extensive clot which is unlikely to 
be absorbed the lancet may be resorted to. 

If the injury leads to paralysis of the penis and hanging out of its 
sheath, it should be supported in a sling and astringents used freely 
until inflammation subsides. Then the restoration of power may be 
sought by a blister between the thighs, by the use of electricity, or by 
the careful use of nerve stimulants, such as strychnia (2 grains daily). 

ULCERS ON THE PENIS. 

Sores on the penis of the bull may result from gravel or sebaceous 
masses in the sheath, or from having served a cow with leucorrhcea. 
They may be treated by frequent injections into the sheath of a lotion 
made with 1 dram sugar of lead, 60 drops carbolic acid and 1 quart 
water. 

POLYPUS OF THE VAGINA OR UTERUS. 

A polypus is a tumor growing from the mucous membrane, and often 
connected to it by a narrow neck. A definite cause can not always be 
assigned. If growing in the vagina a polypus may project as a red- 
dish, rounded tumor from the vulva, especially during the act of passing 
water. It can be distinguished from descent of the womb by the 
absence of the orifice of that cavity, which can be felt by the oiled 
hand beyond the tumor in the depth of the vagina. From a vaginal 
hernia caused by the protrusion of some abdominal organ enveloped 
by the relaxed wall of the vagina it may be distinguished by its per- 
sistence, its firm substance and the impossibility of returning it into 
the abdomen by pressure. A hernia containing a portion of bowel gur- 
gles when handled and can be completely effaced by pressure, the gut 
passing back into the abdomen. 

A polypus in the womb is less easily recognized. At the time of 
calving it may be felt through the open mouth of the womb and recog- 
nized by the educated touch (it must be carefully distinguished from 
the mushroom-formed cotyledons (Plate xni, Fig. 2), to which in rumi- 
nants the fetal membranes are attached). At other times, unless the 
womb is opened in the effort to expel it, the polypus can only be detected 



DISEASES OF THE GENEEATIVE ORGANS. 179 

by examining the womb with the oiled band introduced through the 
rectum. 

Polypi may cause a mucopurulent discharge, or tbey may only be 
suspected when they prove an obstacle to parturition. The best way 
to remove them is to put the chain of an ecraseur around the neck or 
pedicel of the tumor and tear it through; or the narrow neck may be 
torn through by the emasculator, or in an emergency it may be twisted 
through by rotating the tumor on its own axis. The removal of the 
tumor will allow calving to proceed, after which the sore may be treated 
by a daily injection of one-half dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram carbolic 
acid, and 1 quart milk-warm water. 

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY. 

If a cow remains for three or four weeks after service without show- 
ing signs of heat (bulling) she is probably pregnant. There are very 
exceptional cases in which the well-fed cow will accept the bull weeks 
or months after actual conception, and others equally exceptional in 
which the well- thriven but unimpregnated female will refuse the male 
persistently, but these in no way invalidate the general rule. 

The bull, no matter how vigorous nor how ardent his sexual instinct, 
can not be made to pay any attention to a cow which is not in heat; 
hence indications of pregnacy can be had from both the male and female 
side. When she has conceived the cow usually becomes more quiet and 
docile, and lays on flesh and fat more rapidly, especially during the first 
four months of gestation. The stimulus to digestion and nutrition 
created by the demands of the growing fetus, added to the quieter and 
more uneventful life, contributes to this result. Some feeders avail of 
this disposition to prepare heifers and cows speedily for the butcher. 

The enlargement of the abdomen, and its dropping so that it bulges 
below and to each side, while it falls in at the flank, between the outer 
angle of the hip bone and the last rib, are significant features which^ 
though they may be caused by abdominal tumor or dropsy, are usually 
marks of pregnancy. From the same increasing weight of the abdomen 
the spine in the region of the loins sinks so that the bones of the croup 
seem to rise, especially back towards the root of the tail. In the early 
stages of pregnancy the udder develops slowly, and towards its comple- 
tion quite rapidly. For a long time there is merely a sense of greater 
fullness when handled; the wrinkles in the skin become shallower and 
are effaced, and the teats are materially enlarged. Beginning a few 
weeks after conception, this tends to a steady development, though 
slight alternations in the sense of successive growth and shrinkage are 
not uncommon. In milking-cows this does not hold, as the milk usually 
tends to a steady diminution and the udder shrinks slowly until near 
the completion of the period, when it undergoes its sudden remarkable 
development, and yields at first a serous liquid and then the yellow 
colostrum, which coagulates when heated. As pregnancy advances the 



180 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

mucous membrane lining - tlie vulva becomes swollen and of a darker 
bluisli red hue, and the mucous secretion increases, becoming very- 
abundant just before calving. When the feeding has not been altered 
nor restricted a steady diminution of the salts of lime, excreted in the 
urine, is an attendant on pregnancy, the lime being demanded for the 
growing body of the fetus. 

After the fifth month the movements of the calf may often be observed 
in the right flank, nearly in front of the stifle, when the cow is drinking 
cold water. The sensation of cold on the side of the first stomach, 
which lies to the left and directly below the womb (Plate i), stimulates 
the calf to active movements, which are detected on the sudden jerking 
outward of the abdominal wall as if from blows delivered from within. 
In a loose pendant abdomen in the latter months of gestation the skin 
may often be seen pushed out at a sharp angle, irrespective of the 
period of drinking. 

Another mode of examination through the flank is by touch. The 
palm of the hand is pressed strongly inward, about 8 inches in front of 
the stifle and a little below, several times in succession and is then 
brought to rest with the pressure maintained. Presently there are 
felt distinct and characteristic movements of the fetus, which has been 
disturbed and roused to action. Another mode is to press the closed 
fist strongly inward in the same situation and hold it so, forming a deep 
indentation in the abdominal wall. Presently the knuckles are felt to 
be struck by a solid body, which is no other than the fetus that had 
been displaced to the left by the push of the hand, and now floats back 
in its liquid covering (amniotic fluid — see Plate xn) downward and to 
the right. 

Of all the modes of examination by touch, that done through the 
rectum gives the earliest satisfactory indications. The hand and arm 
well oiled are introduced, and the excrement having been removed if 
necessary, the palm of the hand is turned downward and the floor of 
the pelvis carefully examined. There will be felt in the median line 
the pear-shaped outline of the bladder, more or less full, rounded or 
tense, according to the quantity of urine it contains. Between this and 
the hand will be felt a soft, somewhat rounded tubular body, which 
divides in front into two smaller tubes or branches, extending to the 
right and left into the abdomen. This is the womb, which in its virgin 
or uninipregnated condition is of nearly uniform size from before back- 
ward, the main part or body being from 1£ to 2 inches across, and the 
two anterior branches or horns being individually little over an inch 
wide. Immediately after concej)tion the body and one of the horns 
begin to enlarge, the vacant horn remaining disproportionately small, 
and the enlargement will be most marked at one point where a solid 
rounded mass indicates the presence of the growing -embryo. In case 
of twins both horns are enlarged. At a more advanced stage, when 
the embryo begins to assume the form of the future animal, the rounded 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 181 

form gives place to a more or less irregular nodular mass, while later 
still the head, limbs, and body of the fetus may be distinctly made out. 
The chief source of fallacy is found in the very pendant abdomen of 
certain cows, into which in advanced gestation the fetus has dropped 
so low that it can not be felt by the hand in the rectum. The absence 
of the distinct outline of the vacant womb, however, and the clear indi- 
cations obtained on external examination through the right flank will 
serve to prevent any mistake. The fetus may still be felt through the 
rectum if the abdomen is raised by a sheet passed from side to side 
beneath it. 

Still another sign is the beating of the fetal heart, which may be 
heard in the latter half of pregnancy when the ear is pressed on the 
flank in front of the right stifle, or from that downward to the udder. 
The beats, which are best heard in the absence of rumbling, are about 
120 per minute, and easily distinguished from any bowel sounds by 
their perfect regularity. 

DURATION OF PREGNANCY. 

From extended statistics it is found that the average duration of 
pregnancy in the cow is 285 days. A calf born at the two hundred and 
fortieth day nlay live, and a case is reported by Dietrichs of a calf born 
on the three hundred and thirty- fifth day, and another by the American 
Journal of Medical Science as born on the three hundred and thirty- 
sixth day. It is the general observation that in the majority of pro- 
longed pregnancies the offspring is male. Lord Spencer found a pre- 
ponderance of males between the two hundred and ninetieth and the 
three hundredth days, but strangely enough all born after the three 
hundredth day under his observation were females. It might be 
reasonably inferred that while the prevailing tendency is to carry the 
males overtime, yet that the smaller and comparatively much less devel- 
oped female sometimes fails to stimulate the womb to contraction until 
very far beyond the regular date. 

HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT COW. 

Among domestic animals considerations of hygiene must be made 
subservient to profit, and therefore the first consideration is not to 
secure the most robust health, but such a measure of vigor and stamina 
as is compatible with the most profitable utilization of the animal. The 
breeding cow must carry a calf every year, and this notwithstanding 
that she is at the same time suckling another large growing calf. The 
dairy cow must breed every year, and at the same time must furnish 
a generous flow of milk for from nine to eleven months yearly. If her 
health is lowered thereby, or her life Shortened, the question of profit 
must still hold sway and she must yield her place to another when dis- 
qualified. There are exceptions, of course, but this rule generally 
holds. 



182 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

There are certain points, however, in which the interests of hygiene 
may be considered. The pregnant cow should have exercise, and as 
regards both exercise and food, nothing is better than a run on a smooth 
pasture. She should be withheld from all violent excitement, hunting 
with dogs, riding or being ridden by cows in heat, driving in herd 
rapidly through narrow gateways, causing to jump ditches or fences, 
subjecting to blows with the horns of pugnacious cattle, driving on icy 
or otherwise slippery ground, carrying in railroad cars, kicking by 
vicious attendants, and fastening or throwing down for operations. The 
diet should be good, not of a kind to fatten, but with a generous amount 
of nitrogenous constituents which will favor at once the yield of milk 
and the nourishment of the fetus. Aliments rich in lime and phos- 
phates, like wheat bran, middlings, etc., can be used to advantage, as 
there is a constant drain of earthy salts for the building of the body of 
the calf, and thereby the danger of undue concentration of the urine 
is lessened. 

Hard, innutritious, and indigestible aliments, musty grain or hay, par- 
tially ripened rye-grass, millet, Hungarian grass, vetches, peas, or maize 
are objectionable, as they are liable to cause indigestion or even paralysis ; 
and corn or hay affected by smut or ergot, or that has been spoiled by 
wet, overripened, and rendered fibrous and innutrition*, are equally 
objectionable. The food should be in the main laxative, as costiveness 
and straining are liable to cause abortion. Eoots and green food that 
have been frosted are objectionable, as being liable to cause indigestion, 
though in their fresh condition most wholesome and desirable. Ice- 
cold water should be avoided, as calculated to check the flow of milk, 
to derange digestion, and to cause abortion. A good temperature for the 
drink of the dairy cow is 55° F. 

In the case of plethoric and heavy milking cows of mature age and 
in the prime of life, the hitherto liberal diet must be changed at the 
last week for the scantiest possible fare, and the bowels must be kept 
open by laxatives, if need be, if the owner would avoid milk fever. 
The pregnant cow should be kept away from the sight and odor of dead 
carcasses, from the smell of decomposing animal matter, and from stag- 
nant and corrupting water. Her stall should not incline downward 
from shoulder to croup, lest the pressure of the abdominal organs 
should produce protrusion or abortion. She should be kept aloof 
from all causes of acute diseases, and all existing diseases should be 
remedied speedily and with as little excitement of the abdominal 
organs as possible. Strong purgatives and diuretics are to be especially 
avoided, unless it be in the very last days of gestation in very plethoric 

cows. 

Finally, in the case of pure breeds, close association with animals of 
other breeds or crosses, or with animals of other colors, forms, or with 
defects, is to be carefully guarded against. The effects shown in the 
progeny may be exceptional, yet they are none the less sources of pre- 
ventible loss. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 183 

PROTRUSION OF THE VAGINA — PROLAPSUS VAGINAE. 

This is common during pregnancy, from chronic relaxation of the 
vaginal walls and from lying in stalls that are lower behind than in 
front. The protrusion is of a rounded form and smooth, and if it 
embraces both sides of the canal it is double with a passage between. 
It may sometimes be remedied by raising the hind part of the stall 
higher than the front part. This failing, a truss may be applied as for 
eversion of the womb, and worn until the period of calving approaches. 
(Plates xxn, xxiii.) 

HERNIA (BREACH) OF THE UTERUS. 

This occurs usually in advanced pregnancy, from a gradual relaxa- 
tion and distension of the lower wall of the abdomen, in the region of 
the udder, so that the latter is displaced downward, and in the sac 
above and in front of it may be felt the form and movements of the 
fetus. In other cases the womb escapes through a great laceration of 
the abdominal muscles to one side of the udder, and the hernial mass 
extends down to one side of that organ. However unsightly, this 
often allows the animal to complete its pregnancy naturally, and a 
broad supporting bandage placed around the abdomen is about all 
that can be recommended. After calving it is best to fatten the cow. 

CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. 

The compression by the womb and fetus of the nerves passing 
through the pelvis sometimes causes cramp and inability to move the 
limb, but it disappears under friction and motion and is never seen 
after calving. 

DROPSY OF THE HIND LIMBS AND BETWEEN THE THIGHS. 

In the latter months of pregnancy the hind legs may swell beneath 
the hocks, or a soft swelling which pits on pressure with the finger 
appears from the vulva down between the thighs to the udder and in 
front. It is mainly due to the pressure of the enlarged womb on the 
blood-vessels, is not dangerous, and disappears after calving. 

DROPSY OF THE MEMBRANES OF THE FETUS — DROPSY OF THE 

WOMB. 

The unimpregnated womb may be filled with a dropsical fluid, but 
the pregnant womb is more liable to become overdistended by an excess 
of fluid in the inner water-bag in which the fetus floats. (Plate xn.) 
From an unhealthy state of this membrane or of the blood of the fetus 
(watery blood) this liquid may go on accumulating until the cow seems 
almost as broad as she is long. If the trouble has not originated in the 
ill health of the cow, the result is still to draw on her system, overtax her 
strength, and derange her digestion so that the result may prove fatal 



184 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

to both mother and offspring. On the other hand, I have known 
extreme cases come to the natural term without help, and produce a 
living calf, after which the dam did well. The natural resort is to draw 
off a portion of the fluid through a hollow needle passed through the 
neck of the womb or through its tense wall adjacent. This may be 
repeated several times, as demanded to relieve the cow from the injuri- 
ous distension. 

PARALYSIS OF THE HIND PARTS. 

In ill-fed, weak, unthrifty Cows palsy of the hind limbs and tail may 
appear in the last weeks of pregnancy. The anus and rectum may 
participate in the palsy so far as to prevent defecation, and the rectum 
is more or less completely impacted. Exposure to wet and. cold are 
often accessory causes, though the low condition, general weakness, 
and the pressure on the nerves going to the hind limbs are not to be 
forgotten. Something may be done for these cases by a warm dry bed, 
an abundant diet fed warm, frictions with straw wisps or with a liniment 
of equal parts of oil of turpentine and sweet oil on the loins, croup, and 
limbs, by the daily use of ginger and gentian, by the cautious adminis- 
tration of strychnia (2 grains twice daily), and by sending a current of 
electricity daily from the loins through the various groups of muscles 
in the hind limbs. The case becomes increasingly hopeful after calving, 
though some days may still elapse before the animal can support kersell 
upon her limbs. 

EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION — FETUS DEVELOPING OUTSIDE THE 

WOMB. 

These curious cases are rare and are usually divided into three types: 
(1) That in which the fetus is formed in or on the ovary (ovarian gesta- 
tion); (2) that in which it is lodged in the fallopian tube or canal 
between the ovary and womb (tubal gestation) ; and (3) that in which 
it is lodged in the abdominal cavity and attached to one or more of its 
contents from which it draws its nourishment (abdominal gestation). 
Undoubted cases of the first and last varieties are recorded as occurring 
in the cow. The explanation of such cases is to be found in the fact 
that the actively moving sperm cells (spermatozoa) thrown into the 
womb have made their way through the fallopian tubes to the ovary. 
If they met and impregnated an ovum in the tube, and if the conse- 
quent growth of that ovum prevented its descent and caused its impris- 
onment within the tube, it developed there, getting attached to and 
drawing nourishment from the mucous walls. Such product has its 
development arrested by compression by the undilatable tube, or burst- 
ing through the walls of the tube it escapes into the abdomen and 
perishes. If, on the con trary, the spermatozoa only meet-and impregnate 
the ovum on or in the ovary, the development may take place in the 
substance of the ovary from which the fetus draws its nourishment, 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 185 

or tlie impregnated ovum escaping between the ovary and the open 
end of the tube falls into the abdominal cavity, and becomes adherent 
to, and draws nourishment from, some of the abdominal organs (womb, 
bowel, liver, stomach, etc.). 

The symptoms are those of pregnancy, which may be suddenly com- 
plicated by inflammation (peritonitis), owing to rupture of the sac con- 
taining the fetus; or at full term signs of calving appear but no prog- 
ress is made, an examination with the oiled hand in the vagina or 
rectum finds the womb empty and its mouth closed. Further examina- 
tion will disclose the fetal sac attached in some part of the abdominal 
cavity, and containing the more or less perfectly developed body of a 
calf. In the most hopeful cases the fetus perishes at an early stage of 
gestation, becomes inclosed in a fibrous sac, and is slowly absorbed, its 
soft parts becoming liquefied and removed and the bones remaining 
encysted. In some cases the bones have finally sloughed into the rec- 
tum or through an artificial opening in the side of the belly. 

Little can be done in such cases except to quiet pain and excitement 
by anodynes (opimn, chloral, etc.) and leave the rest to nature. A 
fistula discharging bones may be dilated and the bones extracted, 
the sac being then washed out with a solution of 10 grains bichloride 
of mercury in a quart of water. In certain cases with a live calf 
a skillful operator might be justified in cutting into the abdomen and 
extracting the calf with its membranes, using the lotion just named as 
an antiseptic. 

PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS. 

Even when the fetus has developed within the womb it may fail to 
be delivered at the proper time; labor pains have quickly subsided and 
the cow resumed her usual health. In such cases the calf dies, and its 
soft parts are gradually liquefied and absorbed, while its bones remain 
for years in the womb inclosed in the remains of the fetal membranes. 
These may be expelled at any time through the natural channels, or 
they may remain indefinitely in the womb, not interfering with the gen- 
eral health, but preventing conception. 

If the true condition of things is recognized at the time of the sub- 
sidence of the labor pains, the mouth of the womb may be dilated by 
the fingers, by the insertion of sponge tents, or by a mechanical dilator 
(Plate xx, Fig. 6) the fetal membranes may be ruptured and the calf 
extracted. After the removal of the calf and its membranes the dan- 
ger of putrid poisoning may be obviated by injecting the antiseptic 
solution advised in the last paragraph. 

ABORTION — SLINKING THE CALF. 

Technically, abortion is the term used for the expulsion of the off- 
spring before it can live out of the womb. Its expulsion after it is 
capable of an independent existence is premature parturition. In the 



186 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

cow this may be after seven aud one half months of pregnancy. Earl 
Spencer failed to raise any calf born before the two hundred and forty- 
second day. Dairymen use the term abortion for the expulsion of the 
product of conception at any time before the completion of the full 
period of a normal pregnancy, and in this sense it will be employed in 
this article. 

Abortion in cows is either contagious or noncontagious. It does not 
follow that the contagium is the sole cause in every case in which it is 
present. We know that the organized germs of contagion vary much 
in potency at different times, and that the animal system also varies 
in susceptibility to their attack. The germ may therefore be present 
in a herd without any manifest injury, its disease-producing power 
having for the time abated considerably, or the whole herd being in a 
condition of comparative insusceptibility. At other times the same 
germ may have become so virulent that almost all pregnant cows suc- 
cumb to its force, or the herd may have been subjected to other causes 
of abortion which, though of themselves powerless to actually cause 
abortion, may yet so predispose the animals that even the weaker germ 
will operate with destructive effect. In dealing with this disease, 
therefore, it is the part of wisdom not to rest satisfied with the discov- 
ery and removal of one specific cause, but rather to exert oneself to find 
every existent cause and to secure a remedy by correcting all the harm- 
ful conditions. 

CAUSES OF NONCONTAGIOUS ABORTION. 

As abortion most frequently occurs at those three weeks intervals at 
which the cow would have been in heat if nonpregnant, we may assume 
a predisposition at such times due to a periodicity in the nervous sys- 
tem and functions. Poor condition, weakness, and a too watery state 
of the blood is often a predisposing cause. This in its turn may result 
from poor or insufficient food, from the excessive drain upon the udder 
while bearing the calf, from the use of food deficient in certain essen- 
tial elements, like the nitrogenous constituents or albuminoids, from 
chronic wasting diseases, from round or tape worms in the bowels, from 
flat worms (flukes, trematodes) in the liver, from worms in the liver, 
from worms in the lungs, from dark, damp, unhealthy buildings, etc. 
In some such cases the nourishment is so deficient that the fetus dies 
in the womb and is expelled in consequence. Excessive loss of blood, 
attended as it usually is by shock, becomes a direct cause of abortion. 

Acute infiammations of important organs are notorious causes of abor- 
tion, and in most contagious fevers (lung plague, rinderpest, foot aud 
mouth disease) it is a common result. Affections of the chest which 
prevent due aeration of the blood induce contractions of the womb, as 
shown experimentally by Brown- Sequard. Pregnant women suffocated 
in smoke aborted in many cases.* 

* Eetoul. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 187 

Chronic diseases of the abdominal organs are fertile sources of abor- 
tion, especiallytho.se that cause bloating (tympany of the first stomach) 
or diarrhea, or the diseases of the ovaries, kidneys, or bladder. The 
presence of gravel or stone in the kidneys, bladder, or urinary canals, 
is an especial predisposing or even an exciting cause, in magnesian 
limestone districts and in winter. The presence of tubercles in the 
ovaries, the broad ligaments of the womb, and even on the outer sur- 
face of the womb itself, must be added as efficient causes. 

Fatty degeneration of the heart, a common disease in old cows of 
improved beef breeds, lessens the circulation iD the placenta (and fetus) 
and, arresting nutrition, may cause abortion. 

Indigestions of all kinds are especially dangerous, as they are usually 
associated with overdistension of the first stomach (paunch) with gas. 
As this stomach lies directly beneath and to the left side of the womb, 
any disorder, and above' all an excessive distension of that organ, presses 
on or affects the womb and its contents dangerously. It further causes 
contractions of the womb by preventing aeration of the blood. Hence 
all that tends to indigestion is to be carefully guarded against. Priva- 
tion of water, which hinders rumination and digestion ; ice-cold water, 
which rouses the womb to contraction and the calf to vigorous move- 
ment; green, succulent grass, to which the cow has been unaccustomed; 
clover which has just been wet with a slight shower; all green food, roots, 
potatoes, apples, pumpkins that are frozen or have been, or that are 
simply covered with hoar frost; food that has been grown in wet seasons 
or that has been badly harvested; growing corn, oats, etc., if the ani- 
mal is unused to them ; a too dry food or a too stimulating food (wheat 
bran, pease, maize, and cotton-seed) fed too lavishly may, any one of 
them, induce abortion. The dry and stimulating foods last named bring- 
on constipation with straining, and also elevated temperature of the 
body, which, in itself, endangers the life of the fetus. 

Putrid, stagnant water is hurtful both to digestion and the fetus, 
and abortions in cows have been repeatedly traced to this source and 
have ceased when pure water was supplied. Ergoted grasses have long 
been known as a cause of widespread abortions in cows. The ergot is 
familiar as the dark purple or black, hard, spur -like growths which pro- 
trude from the seeds of the grasses attheperiod of their ripening. (Plate 
v.) It is especially common in dainp, cloudy seasons and localities, on 
meadows shaded by trees and protected against the free sweep of the 
winds. The same is to a large extent true of smut. Hence, wet years 
have been often remarkable for the great prevalence of abortions. 
Abortions have greatly increased in New Zealand among cows since 
the introduction of rye grass, which is specially subject to ergot. 
As abortion is more prevalent in old dairying districts the ergot may 
not be the sole cause in this instance. 

The smut of maize, wheat, barley, and oats is fostered by similar 
conditions and is often equally injurious. It should be added that the 



188 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

ergots and smuts of certain years are far iriore injurious than those of 
others. This may be attributed to the fact that they have grown under 
different conditions, and therefore have developed somewhat different 
properties, a habit of fungi which has been often observed; or that in 
certain seasons the cows have been more powerfully predisposed by 
other operative causes of abortion. 

Both ergot and smut vary in latency according to the stage of growth. 
Dr. Kluge found that the ergot gathered before the grain had fully 
ripened was much more powerful than that from the fully ripened 
grain. McGugen found the ergot of wheat more potent than that of 
rye. It should be added that both ergot and smut are robbed some- 
what of their deleterious properties if fed with an abundance of w r ater, 
so that it may prove harmless if fed with roots, ensilage, etc., whereas 
it will prove hurtful when fed in the same amount with dry hay. It is 
also more liable to injure if fed for a long time in succession in winter, 
though it may be in smaller quantity. 

Eust is also charged with causing abortions.* That other cryptograms 
found in musty fodder are productive of abortion has been well estab- 
lished. In Germany and France the wet years of 1851, 1852, and 1853 
were notorious for the prevalence of abortions.* Fodders harvested in 
such seasons are always more or less musty, and musty hay and grain 
have been long recognized as a prolific cause of digestive, urinary, and 
cerebral disorders. Impactions and bloatings of the stomachs, exces- 
sive secretion of urine (diuresis) and red-water are common results of 
such musty fodder, and we have already seen that such disorders of 
the digestive and urinary organs are very liable to affect the pregnant 
womb and induce abortion. 

The riding one another by cows is attended by such severe muscular 
exertion, jars, jolts, mental excitement, and gravitation of the womb 
and abdominal organs backward that it may easily cause abortion in a 
predisx>osed animal. 

Keeping in stalls that slope too much behind (over 2 inches) acts in 
the same way, the compression due to lying and the gravitation back- 
ward proving more than a predisposed cow can safely bear. 

Deep gutters behind the stalls, into which one or both hind limbs 
slip unexpectedly, strain the loins and jar the body and womb most 
injuriously. Slippery stalls in which the flooring boards are laid longi- 
tudinally in place of transversely, and on which no cleats nor other 
device is adopted to give a firm foothold, are almost equally dangerous. 
Driving on icy ground, or through a narrow doorway where the abdo- 
men is liable to be jammed, are other common causes. Offensive odors 
undoubtedly cause abortion. To understand this one must take into 
account the pre.ternaturally acute sense of smell possessed by cattle. 
By this sense the bull instantly recognizes the pregnant cow and 
refrains from disturbing her, while man, with all his boasted skill and 

* Gerlacli. Haselback. t Baumeister, Kueff, Kondaud, Trelut. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 189 

precise methods finds it difficult to come to a just conclusion. The 
emanations from a cow in heat, however, will instantly draw the bull 
from a long distance. Carrion in the pasture fields or about slaughter- 
houses near by, the emanations from shallow graves, dead rats or 
chickens about the barns, and dead calves, the product of prior abor- 
tions, are often chargeable with the maintenance of abortions. Abort- 
ing cows often fail to expel the afterbirth, and if this remains hanging 
in a putrid condition it is most injurious to pregnant cows in the near 
vicinity. So with retained afterbirth in other cows after calving. 
That some cows kept in filthy stables or near by slaughterhouses may 
become inured to the odors and escape the evil results is no disproof of 
the injurious effects so often seen in such cases. 

The excitement, jarring, and jolting of a railroad journey will often 
cause abortion , especially as the cow nears the period of calving, and 
the terror or injury of railway or other accidents prove incomparably 
worse. 

All irritant poisons cause abortions by the disorder and inflammation 
of the digestive organs, and if such agents act also on the kidneys or 
womb the effect is materially enhanced. Powerful purgatives or diu- 
retics should never be administered to the pregnant cow. 

During pregnancy the contact of the expanding womb with the 
paunch, just beneath it, and its further intimate connection through 
nervous sympathy with the whole digestive system, leads to various 
functional disorders and especially to a morbid craving for unnatural 
objects of food. In the cow this is shown in the chewing of bones, 
pieces of wood, iron bolts, articles of clothing, lumps of hardened paint, 
etc. An unsatisfied craving of this kind, producing constant excite- 
ment of the nervous system, will strongly conduce to abortion. How 
much more so if the food is lacking in the mineral matter and especially 
the phosphates necessary for the building up of the body of both dam 
and offspring, to say nothing of that drained off in every milking. 
This state of things is present in many old dairy farms, from which the 
mineral matters of the surface soil have been sold off in the milk or 
cheese for generations and no return has been made in food or manure 
purchased. Here is the craving of an imperative need, and if it is not 
supplied the health of the cow suffers and the life of the fetus may be 
sacrificed. 

Among other causes of abortion must be named the death or the 
various illnesses of the fetus, which are about as numerous as those of 
the adult; the slipping of a young fetus through a loop in the navel 
string so as to tie a knot which will tighten later and interrupt the 
flow of blood with fatal effect; and the twisting of the navel string by 
the turning of the fetus until little or no blood can flow through the 
contorted cord. There is in addition a series of diseases of the mucous 
membrane of the womb, and of the fetal membranes (inflammation, 
effusion of blood, detachment of the membranes from the womb, fatty 



190 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

or other degenerations, etc.), which interfere with the supply of blood 
to the fetus or change its quality so that death is the natural result, 
followed by abortion. 

CONTAGIOUS ABOKTION — ITS CAUSE. 

While any one of the above conditions may concur with the conta- 
gious principle in precipitating an epizootic of abortion, yet it is only 
by reason of the contagium that the disease can be indefinitely perpet- 
uated and transferred from herd to herd. When an aborting cow is 
placed in a herd that has hitherto been healthy, and shortly afterwards 
miscarriage becomes prevalent in that herd and continues year after 
year, in spite of the fact that all the other conditions of life in that herd 
remain the same as before, it is manifest that the result is due to con- 
tagion. When a bull, living in a healthy herd, has been allowed to 
serve an aborting cow, or a cow from an aborting herd, and when the 
members of his own herd, subsequently served by him abort in consid- 
erable numbers, contagion may be safely inferred. Mere living in the 
same pasture or building does not convey the infection. Cows brought 
into the aborting herd in advanced pregnancy carry their calves to the 
full time. But cows served by the infected bull, or that have had the 
infection conveyed by the tongue or tail of other animals, or by their 
own, or that have had the external genitals brought in contact with 
wall, feuce, rubbing post, litter, or floor previously soiled by the infected 
animals, will be liable to suffer. The Scottish abortion committee found 
that when healthy, pregnant cows merely stood with or near aborting 
cows they escaped, but when a piece of cotton wool lodged for twenty 
minutes in the vagina of the aborting cow was afterwards inserted into 
the vagina of a healthy, pregnant cow or sheep, the latter invariably 
aborted within a month. So Eoloff relates that in two large stables at 
Erfurt, without any direct intercommunication, but filled with cows fed 
and managed in precisely the same way, abortion prevailed for years in 
the one, while not a single case occurred in the other. Galtier finds 
that the virus from the aborting cow causes abortions in the sow, ewe, 
goat, rabbit, and guinea-pig; and that if it has been intensified by 
passing through either of the two last-named animals, it will affect 
also the mare, bitch, and cat. 

The precise germs or germ causing abortion have not yet been demon- 
strated beyond question. Twenty years ago Eranck, of Munich, drew 
attention to a chain form of cells (Lejptothrix vaginalis) as the efficient 
cause. The Scottish Commission have isolated in gelatin cultures five 
different bacteria obtained from the vaginal mucus of the aborting cow, 
and Nocard, of Alfort, speaks of a germ existing abundantly between 
the womb and fetal membranes of aborting cows which was never found 
in the healthy. 

Symptoms of abortion. — In the first two or three months of pregnancy 
no symptoms may have been observed, and unless the aborted product 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 191 

is seen the fact of abortion may escape notice. Some soiling of the tail 
with mucus, blood, and the waters may be observed, or the udder may 
show extra firmness, and in the virgin heifer or dry cow the presence of 
a few drops of milk may be suggestive, or the fetus and its membranes 
may be found in the gutter or elsewhere as a mere clot of blood or as a 
membraneous ball in which the forming body of the fetus is found. In 
water the villi of the outer membrane (chorion, Plate xn) float out, 
giving it a characteristically shaggy appearance. 

In advanced pregnancy abortion is largely the counterpart of parturi- 
tion, so that a special description is superfluous. The important thing 
is to distinguish the early symptoms from those of other diseases, so 
that the tendency may be arrested and the animal carried to full time 
if possible. A cow is dull, sluggish, separate from the herd, chewing 
the cud languidly, or there may be frequent lying down and rising, 
uneasy movements of the hind feet or of the tail, and slightly acceler- 
ated pulse and breathing, and dry muzzle. The important thing is not 
to confound it with digestive or urinary disorder, but in a pregnant cow 
to examine at once for any increase of mucus in the vagina, or for blood 
or liquid there or on the root of the tail; for any enlargement, firmness, 
or tenderness of the udder, or in dry cows milk, and above all for any 
slight straining suggestive of labor pains. 

In many cases the membranes are discharged with the fetus; in oth- 
ers, in advanced pregnancy, they fail to come away, and remain bang- 
ing from the vulva, putrefying and falling piecemeal — finally resulting 
in a fetid discharge from the womb. According to the size of the herd 
contagious abortions will follow one another at intervals of one to four 
or more weeks, in the order of their infection or of the recurrence of the 
period of activity of the womb which corresponds to the occurrence of 
heat. 

Prevention.— Weakness and bloodlessness are to be obviated by gen- 
erous feeding, and especially in aliments (wheat bran, rape cake, cotton 
seed, oats, barley, beans, pease, etc.), rich in earthy salts, which will 
also serve to correct the morbid appetite. This will also regenerate the 
exhausted soil if the manure is returned to it. In the same way the 
application of ground bones or phosphates will correct the evil, acting 
in this case through the soil first and raising better food for the stock. 
The ravages of worms are to be obviated by avoiding infested pastures, 
ponds, streams, shallow wells or those receiving any surface leakage 
from land where stock go, and by feeding salt at will, as this agent is 
destructive to most young worms. 

The tendency to urinary calculi in winter is avoided by a succulent 
diet (ensilage, steamed food, roots, pumpkins, apples, potatoes, slops), 
and by the avoidance of the special causes named under Gravel. (See 
p. 153). Furnishing water inside the barn in winter in place of driv- 
ing once a day to take their fill of ice-cold liquid will obviate a common 
evil. Putrid and stagnant water are to be avoided. Sudden changes 



192 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

of food are always reprehensible, but much more so in the pregnant 
animal. Let the change be gradual. So with what is spoiled or 
unwholesome. 

In case of prevalence of ergot in a pasture it should be kept eaten 
down, or cut down with a mower, so that no portion runs to seed. (See 
Plate v.) In case of a meadow the grass must be cut early before 
the seeds have filled. The most dangerous time appears to be between 
the formation of the milky seed and the full ripening. Yet the ergot 
is larger in proportion to the ripeness, so that the loss of potency is 
made up in quantity. The ripe seed and ergot may be removed by 
threshing and the hay safely fed. It may also be noted that both 
ergot and smut may be safely fed in moderate quantity, provided it is 
used with succulent food (ensilage, roots, etc.) or with free access to 
water, and salt is an excellent accessory as encouraging the animal to 
drink. Both ergot and smut are most injurious iu winter when the 
water supply is frozen up or accessible only at long intervals. The 
ergoted seed when threshed out can not be safely sown, but if first 
boiled it may be fed in small amount or turned into manure. The 
growth of both ergot and smut may be to a large extent prevented by 
the time-honored Scotch practice of sprinkling the seed with a satu- 
rated solution of sulphate of copper before sowing. 

Fields badly affected with ergot or smut may be practically renewed 
by plowing up and cultivating, for a series of years under crops (turnips, 
beets, potatoes, buckwheat, etc.), which do not harbor the fungus, and 
which require much cultivation and exposure of the soil. Drainage 
and the removal of all unnecessary barriers to the free action of sun- 
shine and wind are important provisions. 

Other precautions concerning separation from cows in heat, a proper 
construction of stalls, the avoidance of carrion and other offensive 
odors, protection from all kinds of mechanical injuries, including over- 
driving and carrying by rail in advanced pregnancy, the exclusion of 
all irritants, or strong purgatives and diuretics from food or medicine, 
and the guarding against all causes of indigestion and bloating have 
been sufficiently indicated under Causes. For protection of the womb 
and fetus against the various causes of disease available methods are 
not so evident. For cows that have aborted in the last pregnancy 
chlorate of potash, 3 drams daily before the recurrence of the expected 
abortion, is often useful. Prevention of contagious abortion will nat- 
urally come with the treatment. 

Treatment of non-contagious abortion. — Although the first symptoms 
of abortion have appeared it does not follow that it will go on to com- 
pletion. So long as the fetus has not perished, if the waters have not 
been discharged, nor the water -bags presented, attempts should be 
made to check its progress. Every appreciable and removable cause 
should be done away with, the cow should be placed in a quiet stall 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 193 

alone, and agents given to check the excitement of the labor pains. 
Laudanum in closes of 1 ounce for a small cow or 2 ounces for a large 
one should be promptly administered and repeated in three or four 
hours, should the labor pains recur. This may be kept up for days or 
even weeks if necessary, though that is rarely required, as the trouble 
either subsides or abortion occurs. If the laudanum seems to lack per- 
manency of action use bromide of potassium, or better, extract of vibur- 
num prunifolium (40 grains) at intervals of two or three hours until 
five or six doses have been given. 

Treatment of contagious abortion. — So far as this differs from the treat- 
ment of sporadic abortion, it consists in the free use of germicides or 
disinfectants. 

(1) Scrape and wash the back part of the stall and gutter and water 
it with a solution of 5 ounces sulphate of copper (Milestone) in 1 gallon 
pure water. Repeat this cleaning and watering at least once a week. 
This should in all cases be applied to every stall where an aborting cow 
has stood and to those adjacent. To treat the whole in the same way 
would be even better, as it is impossible to say how many of the cows 
harbor the germ. This is the more needful that in three or four years, 
if the aborting cow is kept on, she becomes insusceptible and carries 
her calf to full time. A cow may therefore be infecting to others though 
she no longer aborts herself. 

(2) Dissolve 1 dram corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce each of alcohol and 
glycerine, and shake this up in a gallon of water, to use as an injection 
into the vagina and a wash for the parts about the vulva and root of 
the tail. Being very poisonous, it should be kept in a wooden barrel 
out of the way of animals or children. Every morning the vulva, anus, 
back of the hips, and root of the tail should be sponged with this liquid, 
and this is best applied to the whole herd. 

(3) When any case of abortion has occurred the fetal membranes must 
be removed by the hand without delay, and together with the fetus 
destroyed by burning, or boiling, or buried deeply, and the stall should 
be cleansed and watered freely with the copper solution. Then the 
womb should be washed out with 1£ gallons of the corrosive sublimate 
solution injected through a.rubber tube introduced to the depth of the 
womb and with a funnel in its outer elevated end. This should be 
repeated daily for a week. In the case of the other cows of the herd 
one injection of the same kind should be made into the vagina, after 
which they need only have their external parts and tail washed with 
the solution daily. 

As a certain number of the cows will harbor the germ in the womb 
when treatment is started, it is not to be expected that abortions will 
cease at once, but by keeping up the treatment the trouble may be got 
quit of in the following year. As an aborting cow is usually of little 
use for the dairy, it is best to separate and fatten her and apply treat- 
24697 13 



194 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

merit to. those that remain. In this, as in other delicate manipulations, 
the stockowner will consult his own interest by employing an accom- 
plished veterinarian, and avoiding such as have not had the privileges 
of a thorough professional education. In addition to the above the 
removal pf all manure and contaminated litter and the sprinkling of 
the surface with the sulphate of the copper solution is called for. Drains 
should no less be thoroughly rinsed and disinfected. Milking stools 
and other implements may be treated in the same way, or with carbolic 
acid or boiling water. Great care should be taken to guard against 
bull or cows from an aborting herd or district; streams even may be 
suspected if there is an aborting herd near by and higher up on that 
stream. Cows sent to bull from an aborting herd are to be denied, and 
workmen that have attended on such a herd should be made to wash 
and disinfect their clothes and persons. 

SYMPTOMS OF CALVING. 

In the cow the premonitions of calving are the enlargement of the 
udder, which becomes firm and resistant to the touch, with more or 
less swelling in front, and yields a serous milky fluid; the enlargement 
and swelling of the vulva, which discharges an abundant stringy mucus; 
the drooping of the belly, and the falling in of the muscles at each 
side of the root of the tail, so as to leave deep hollows. When this last 
symptom is seen calving may be counted on in twenty-four hours or in 
two or three days. When the act is imminent, the cow becomes uneasy, 
moves restlessly, leaves off eating, in the field leaves the herd, lies down 
and rises again as if in pain, shifts upon her hind feet, moves the tail, 
and may bellow or moan. When labor pains come on the back is 
arched, the croup drooped, the belly is drawn up, and straining is more 
or less violent and continuous. Meanwhile blood may have appeared 
on the vulva and tail, and soon the clear water-bags protrude between 
the lips of the vulva. They increase rapidly, hanging down toward 
the hocks, and the fore or hind feet can be detected within them. With 
the rupture of the bags and escape of the waters the womb contracts 
on the solid angular body of the fetus, and is at once stimulated to 
more violent contractions, so that the work proceeds with redoubled 
energy to the complete expulsion. This is the reason why it is wrong- 
to rupture the water-bags if the presentation is normal, as they furnish 
a soft uniform pressure for the preliminary dilatation of the mouth of 
the womb and passages, in anticipation of the severe strain put upon 
them as the solid body of the calf passes. 

The cow often calves standing, in which case the navel-string is 
broken as the calf falls to the ground. If, however, she is recumbent 
this cord is torn through as she rises up. The after pains come on three 
or four hours later and expel the membranes, and these should never 
be left longer than twenty-four hours. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 195 

NATURAL PRESENTATION. 

When there is but one calf the natural presentation is that of the 
fore feet with the front of the hoofs and knees tinned upward toward 
the tail of the dam and the nose lying between the knees. (Plate xv.) 
If there are twins the natural position of the second is that of the hind 
feet, the heels and hocks turned upward toward the cow's tail. (Plate 
xviii, Fig. 1.) In both of these natural positions the curvature of the 
body of the calf — the back arched upward — is the same with the curva- 
ture of the passages, which descend anteriorly into the womb, ascend 
over the brim of the pelvis, and descend again toward the external 
opening (vulva). Any presentation different from the above is abnor- 
mal. 

OBSTACLES TO PARTURITION. 

With a well-formed cow and calf and a natural presentation as above, 
calving is usually prompt and easy. Obstacles may, however, come from 
failure of the mouth of the womb to dilate; from twisting of the neck of 
the womb; from tumors in the vagina; from dropsy in the womb or ab- 
domen; from overdistension of the rectum or bladder; from undue 
narrowing of the passages ; from excess of fat in the walls of the pel- 
vis ; from the disturbance of a nervous cow by noises ; from stone or 
urine in the bladder; from wrong presentation of the calf, its back be- 
ing turned downward or to one side in place of upward toward the 
spine of the dam; from the bending backward into the body of the 
womb of one or more limbs or of the head; from presentation of the 
back, shoidder, or croup, all four limbs being turned back; from pre- 
sentation of all four feet at once ; from obstruction caused by an extra 
head or extra limbs, or double body on the part of the offspring (Plate 
xix); from dropsy or other disease of the calf; from excessive or im- 
perfect development of the calf; from the impaction of twins at the 
same time into the passages; or it may be at times from the mere 
excessive volume of the fetus. 

GENERAL MAXIMS FOR THE ASSISTANT IN DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 

Do not interfere too soon. "Meddlesome midwifery is bad" with 
animals as with women. After labor pains set in, give a reasonable 
time for the water-bags to protrude and burst spontaneously, and only 
interfere when delay suggests some mechanical obstruction. If there 
is no mechanical obstruction let the calf be expelled slowly by the 
unaided efforts of the cow. Bruises and lacerations of the passages 
and flooding from the uncontracted womb may come from the too 
speedy extraction of the calf. When assistance is necessary, the oper- 
ator should dress in a thick flannel shirt from which the sleeves have 
been cut off clear up to the shoulders. This avoids danger of exposure, 
and yet leaves the whole arm free and nntrammeled. Before inserting 
the hand, it and the arm should be smeared with oil, lard, or vaseline, 



196 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

care being taken that the oil or lard is fresh, neither salted nor rancid, 
and that it has been purified by boiling or rendered antiseptic, by the 
addition of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid to the pound. This is a valu- 
able precaution against infecting the cow by introducing putrid fer- 
ments into the passages, and against poisoning of the arm by decom- 
posing discharges in case the calving is unduly protracted. When 
labor pains have lasted some time without any signs of the water bags, 
the dropping in at the sides of the rump, and the other preparations for 
calving being accomplished, the hand should be introduced to examine. 
When the water-bags have burst and neither feet nor head appear for 
some time, examination should be made. When one fore foot only and 
the head appears, or both fore feet without the head, or the head with- 
out the fore feet, examine. If one hind foot appears without the other, 
make examination. The presenting limb or head should be secured by 
a rope with a running noose, so that it may not pass back into the 
womb and get lost during the subsequent manipulations, but may be 
retained in the vagina or brought up again easily. In searching for a 
missing member, it is usually better to turn the head of the cow down 
hill, so that the gravitation of the fetus and abdominal organs forward 
into the belly of the cow may give more room in which to bring up the 
missing limb or head. If the cow is lying down turn her on the side 
opposite to that on which the limb is missing, so that there may be 
more room for bringing the latter up. Even if a missing limb is reached 
it is vain to attempt to bring it up during a labor pain. Wait until the 
pain has ceased, and attempt to straighten on the limb before the next 
pain comes on. If the pains are violent and continuous they may be 
checked by pinching the back or by putting a tight surcingle round 
the body in front of the udder. These failing, 1 ounce or 1£ ounces of 
chloral hydrate in a quart of water may be given to check the pains. 
If the passages have dried up or lost their natural lubricating liquid, 
smear the interior of the passages and womb, and the surface of the 
calf as far as it can be reached, with pure fresh lard ; or pure sweet oil 
may be run into the womb through a rubber tube (fountain syringe). 
In dragging up the fetus apply strong traction only while the mother 
is straining, and drag downward toward the hocks as well as back- 
ward. You thus follow the natural curvature of both fetus and pas- 
sages, and render the extraction easier. 

LABOR PAINS BEFORE RELAXATION OF THE PASSAGES. 

Any of the various causes of abortion may bring on labor pains 
before the time. Straining comes on days or weeks before the time, 
and there is not the usual enlargement, swelling and mucous discharge 
from the vulva. There is little or no falling in by the sides of the root 
of the tail; the abdomen has not dropped to the usual extent, and the 
udder is less developed and yields little or no milk. In spite of the 
pains no water bags appear, and the oiled hand cautiously introduced 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 197 

into the vagina finds the neck of the womb firmly closed, rigid, and 
un dilatable. If it is known that the cow has not reached her proper 
time of calving, the examination through the vagina should be omitted 
and the animal should be placed in a dark, quiet place by herself, and 
be given 1 to 2 ounces laudanum. Viburnum prunifoliuin, 1 ounce, may 
be added, if necessary, and repeated in three hours. The pains will 
usually subside. 

In some instances the external parts are relaxed and duly prepared, 
but the neck of the womb remains rigidly closed. In such a case the 
solid extract of belladonna should be smeared around the constricted 
opening and the animal left quiet until it relaxes. 

DISEASED INDURATION OF THE MOUTH OF THE WOMB. 

From previous lacerations or other injuries the neck of the womb may 
have become the seat of fibrous hardening and constriction, so as to 
prevent its dilatation when all other parts are fully prepared for calv- 
ing. The enlarged, flabby vulva, the sinking at each side of the rump, 
the full udder and drooping abdomen indicate the proper time for calv- 
ing, but the labor pains secure no progress in the dilatation of the mouth 
of the womb, and the oiled hand introduced detects the rigid, hard, and, 
in some cases, nodular feeling of the margins of the closed orifice, which 
no application of belladonna or other antispasmodic suffices to relax. 
Sponge tents may be inserted or the mechanical dilator (Plate xx, Fig. 
6) may be used if there is opening enough to admit it, and if not a 
narrow-bladed probe-pointed knife (Plate xxiv, Fig. 2) may be passed 
through the orifice and turned upward, downward, and to each side, cut- 
ting to a depth not exceeding a quarter of an inch in each case. This 
done a finger may be inserted, then two, three, and four, and finally all 
four fingers and thumb brought together in the form of a cone and made 
to push in with rotary motion until the whole hand can be introduced. 
After this the labor pains will induce further dilatation, and finally the 
presenting members of the calf will complete the process. 

TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. 

This is not very uncommon in the cow, the length of the body of the 
womb and the looseness of the broad ligaments that attach it to the 
walls of the pelvis favoring the twisting. It is as if one were to take 
a long sack rather loosely filled at the neck and turn over its closed 
end so that its twisting should occur in the neck. The twist may be 
one-quarter round, so that the upper surface would come to look to one 
side, or it may be half round, so that what was the upper surface 
becomes the lower. The relation of the womb of the cow to the upper 
and right side of the paunch favors the twisting. The paunch occu- 
pies the whole left side of the abdomen and extends across its floor to 
the right side. Its upper surface thus forms an inclined plane, sloping 
from the left downward and to the right, and on this sloping surface 



198 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

lies the pregnant womb. It is easy to see how, in the constant move- 
ments of the paunch upon its contents and the frequent changes of 
position of the growing fetus within the womb, to say nothing of the 
contractions of the adjacent bowels and the more or less active move- 
ments of the cow, should lead the womb to roll downward to the right. 
And yet, in many cases, the twist is toward the left, showing that it is not 
the result of a simple rolling downward over the paunch, but rather of 
other disturbances. The condition may be suspected when labor pains 
have continued for some time without any sign of the water-bags, and 
it is confirmed when the oiled hand, introduced through the vagina, 
finds the month of the womb soft and yielding, but furnished with 
internal folds running forward in a spiral manner. If the folds on the 
upper Avail of the orifice run toward the right, the womb is twisted to 
the right ; if, on the contrary, they turn toward the left it indicates 
that the womb is turned over in that direction. The direction of the 
twist must be known before treatment can be undertaken. Then, if 
the twist is toward the right, the cow is laid upon her right side, with 
her head down hill, the hand of the operator is introduced through the 
spirally constricted neck of the womb, and a limb or other portion of 
the body of the calf is seized and pressed firmly against the wall of 
the womb. Meanwhile two or three assistants roll the cow from her 
right side over her back to her left side. The object is to hold the 
womb and calf still while the body of the cow rolls over. If success- 
ful, the twist is undone, its grasp on the wrist is slackened, and the 
water bags and calf press into the now open passage. If the first 
attempt does not succeed it is to be repeated until success has been 
attained. If the si)iral folds on the upper wall of the opening turn 
toward the left, the cow is laid on her left side and rolled over on her 
back and on to the right side, the hand being, as before, within the 
womb and holding the fetus, so that all may not rotate with the cow. 
In introducing the hand it will usually be found needful to perforate 
the membranes, so that a limb of the calf may be seized direct and 
firmly held. Among my occasional causes of failure with these cases 
have been, first, the previous death and decomposition of the fetus, 
leading to such overdistension of the womb that it could not be made 
to rotate within the abdomen ; and, second, the occurrence of inflam- 
mation and an exudate on the twisted neck of the womb, which hin- 
dered it from untwisting. 

In obstinate cases, in which the hand can be made to pass through 
the neck of the womb easily, additional help may be had from the use 
of the instrument shown in Plate xx, Fig. 5. Two cords, with running 
nooses, are successively introduced and made fast on two limbs of the 
calf; the cords are then passed through the two rings on the end of the 
instrument, which is passed into the womb and the cords drawn tight 
and fixed round the handle. Then, using the handle" as a lever, it is 
turned in the direction opposite to the twist. The hand should mean- 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 199 

while be introduced into the womb and the snared limbs seized and 
pressed against its walls so as to secure the rotation of the uterus along 
with the body of the fetus. The relaxation of the constriction and 
the effacement of the spiral folds will show when success has been 
gained, and the different members at one end of the body should then 
be brought up so as to secure a natural presentation. 

NARROW PELVIS FROM FRACTURE OR DISEASE. 

In a small cow the pelvis may be too small to pass a calf sired by a 
bull of a large breed, but this is exceptional, as the fetus usually 
accommodates itself to the size of the dam and makes its extra growth 
after birth. When the pelvic bones have been fractured repair takes 
place with the formation of a large permanent callus, which, projecting 
internally, may be a serious obstacle to calving. Worse still, if the 
edge of the broken bone projects internally as a sharp spike or ridge, 
as the vaginal walls are cut upon this during the passage of the calf, 
with serious or fatal result. In other cases, where the cow has suffered 
from fragility of bone (fragilitas ossium), the thickening of the bone 
causes narrowing of the long passage of the pelvis and the crumb- 
ling fractures poorly repaired, with an excess of brittle new material, 
may form an insuperable obstacle to parturition. Cows affected in any 
of these ways should never again be bred, but if they do get pregnant 
and reach full time a careful examination will be necessary to determine 
whether natural parturition can take place, or if the calf must be 
extracted in pieces. (See Embryotomy.) 

OBSTRUCTION BY MASSES OR FAT. 

This is not unknown in old cows of the beef breeds, the enormous 
masses of fat upon and within the pelvis being associated with weak- 
ness or fatty degeneration of the muscles. If the presentation is nat- 
ural little more is wanted than a judicious traction upon the fetus to 
compress and overcome the soft resisting masses. 

OBSTRUCTION BY A FULL BLADDER OR RECTUM, OR BY STONE. 

In all cases of delayed or tardy parturition the evacuation of rectum 
and bladder is important, and it is no less so in all difficult parturi- 
tions. Stone in the bladder is fortunately rare in the cow, but when 
present it should be removed to obviate crushing and perhaps perfora- 
tion of the organ during calving. 

CALVING RETARDED BY NERVOUSNESS. 

In a public fair-ground I have seen labor pains begin early in the day 
and keep up in a weak and insufficient manner for many hours, until 
the stall was thoroughly closed in and the cow secluded from the con- 
stant stream of visitors and the incessant noise, when at once the pains 
became strong and effective and the calf was soon born. 



200 ' DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

COAGULATED BLOOD UNDER THE VAGINAL AVALI.S. 

This is common after calving, but will sometimes occur before, as tlie 
result of accidental injury. The mass may be recognized by its dark 
hue and the doughy sensation to the touch. It may be cut into and 
the mass turned out with the fingers, after Avhich it should be washed 
frequently with an antiseptic lotion (carbolic acid 1 dram, in 1 quart 
water). 

CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. 

In early fetal life the winding of the navel-string round a limb may 
cause the latter to be slowly cut off by absorption under the constrict 
ing cord. So, at calving, the cord wound round a presenting member 
may retard progress somewhat, and though the calf may still be born 
tardily by the unaided efforts of the mother, it is liable to come still- 
born because the circulation in the cord is interrupted by compression 
before the offspring can reach the open air and commence to breathe. 
If, therefore, it is possible to anticipate and prevent this displacement 
and compression of the navel string it should be done, but if this is no 
longer possible, then the extraction of the calf should be effected as 
rapidly as possible, and if breathing is not at once attempted it should 
be started by artificial means. 

WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS) OF THE CALF. 

This is an enormous distention of the cavity holding the brain, by 
reason of the accumulation of liquid in the internal cavities (ventricles) 
of the brain substance. The head back of the eyes rises into a great 
rounded ball (Plate xix, Figs. 4 and 5), which proves an insuperable 
obstacle to parturition. The fore feet and nose being the parts pre- 
sented, no progress can be made, and even if the feet are pulled upon, 
the nose can not by any means be made to appear. The oiled hand intro- 
duced into the passages will feel the nose presenting between the fore 
limbs, and on passing the hand back over the face the hard rounded 
mass of the cranium is met with. A sharp pointed knife or a canula 
and trocar should be introduced in the palm of the hand, and pushed 
into the center of the rounded mass so as to evacuate the water. The 
hand is now nsed to press together the hitherto distended but thin 
and fragile walls, and the calf may be delivered in the natural way. If 
the enlarged head is turned backward it must still be reached and 
punctured, after which it must be brought np into position and the calf 
delivered. 

If the hind feet present first, all may go well until the body and shoul- 
ders have passed out, when further progress is suddenly arrested by the 
great bulk of the head. If possible the hand, armed with a knife or tro- 
car, must be passed along the side of the shoulder or neck so as to reach 
and puncture the distended head. Failing in this the body may be 
skinned up from the belly and cut in two at the shoulder or neck, after 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 201 

which tlie liead can easily be reached and punctured. In such a case 
the fore limbs have been left in the womb, and these may now be brought 
up into the passage and when dragged upon, the collapsed head will 

follOAV. 

If the distention is not sufficient to have rendered the bony walls of 
the cranium thin and fragile, so that they can be compressed with the 
band after puncture, a special method may be necessary. A long incision 
should be made from behind forward in the median line of the cranium 
with an embryotomy knife (Plate xxi,Fig. 1) or with a long embryotome 
(Plate xx, Fig. 3). By this means the bones on the one side are com- 
pletely separated from those on the other, and may be made to overlap 
and perhaps to flatten down. If this fails they may be cut from the 
head all around the base of the rounded cranial swelling, by means of 
a guarded chisel (Plate xx, Fig. 8) and mallet, after which there will be 
no difficulty in causing them to collapse. 

DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN OF THE CALF — ASCITES. 

This is less frequent than hydrocephalus, but no less difficult to deal 
with. With an anterior presentation the fore limbs and head may come 
away easily enough, but no effort will advance the calf beyond the 
shoulders. The first thought should be dropsy of the belly, and the 
oiled hand introduced by the side of the chest will detect the soft and 
fluctuating yet tense sac of the abdomen. If there is space to allow of 
the introduction of an embryotomy knife the abdomen may be freely 
cut with this, when the fluid will escape into the womb and parturition 
may proceed naturally. If this can not be effected a long trocar and 
canula may be passed between the first two ribs and straight on beneath 
the spine until it punctures the abdomen. (Plate xviii, Fig. 2.) Then 
the trocar is to be withdrawn and the liquid will flow through the can- 
ula and will be hastened by traction on the fore limbs. In the absence 
of the trocar and canula, two or three of the first ribs may be cut 
from the breastbone so that the hand may be introduced through the 
chest to puncture the diaphragm with an embryotomy knife and allow 
an escape of the water. In some slighter cases a tardy delivery may 
take place without puncture, the liquid bulging forward into the chest 
as the abdomen is compressed in the pelvic passages. With a posterior 
presentation the abdomeu may be punctured more easily either in the 
flank or with a trocar and canula through the anus. 

GENERAL DROPSY OF THE CALF. 

This occurs from watery blood or disease of some internal organ, like 
the liver or kidney, and is recognized by the general puffed up and 
rounded condition of the body, which pits everywhere on pressure but 
without crackling. If not too extreme a case the calf may be extracted 
after it has been very generally punctured over the body, but usually 
the only resort is to extract it in pieces. (See Embryotomy). 



202 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

SWELLING OF THE CALF WITH GAS. 

This is usually the result of the death and decomposition of the fetus 
when extraction has been delayed for a day or more after the escape of 
the waters. It is impossible to extract it whole, owing to its large size 
and the dry state of the skin of the calf, the membranes, and the wall of 
the womb. These dry surfaces stick with such tenacity that no attempt 
at traction leads to any advance of the calf out of the womb or into the 
passages. When the fetus is advanced the adherent womb advances 
with it, and when the strain is relaxed both recede to where they were 
at first. The condition may be helped somewhat by the free injection 
of oil into the womb, but it remains impossible to extract the enormously 
bloated body, and the only resort is to cut it in pieces and extract it by 
degrees. (See Embryotomy). 

RIGID CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. 

In the development of the calf, as in after life, the muscles are subject 
to cramps, and in certain cases given groups of muscles remain unnat- 
urally short, so that even the bones grow in a twisted and distorted 
way. In one case the head and neck are drawn round to one side and 
can not be straightened out, even the bones of the face and the nose 
being curved around to that side. In other cases the flexor muscles of 
the fore legs are so shortened that the knees are kept constantly bent 
and can not be extended by force. The bent neck may sometimes be 
sufficiently straightened for extraction by cutting across the muscles 
on the side to which it is turned, and the bent knees by cutting the 
cords on the back of the shank bones just below the knees. If this 
fails there remains the resort of cutting off the distorted limbs or head. 
(See Embryotomy). 

TUMORS OF THE CALF — INCLOSED OVUM. 

Tumors or new growths grow on the unborn calf as on the mature 
animal, and by increasing the diameter of the body render its passage 
through the j>assage of the pelvis impossible. In my experience with 
large fleshy tumors of the abdomen, I have cut open the chest, removed 
the lungs and heart, cut through the diaphragm with the knife, and 
removed the tumor piecemeal by alternate tearing and cutting until the 
volume of the body was sufficiently reduced to pass through. Where 
this failed it would remain to cut off the anterior part of the body, 
removing as much of the chest as possible, and cutting freely through 
the diaphragm; then, pushing back the remainder of the body, the hind 
limbs may be seized and brought into the passages, and the residue 
extracted thus. The tumor, unless very large, will get displaced back- 
ward so as not to prove an insuperable obstacle. 

In many cases the apparent tumor is a blighted ovum which has 
failed to develop, but has grafted itself on its more fortunate twin and 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 203 

from it has drawn its nourishment. These are usually sacs containing 
hair, skin, muscle, bone, or other natural tissues, and only exceptionally 
do they show the distinct outline of the animal. 

MONSTROSITY IN THE CALF. 

As a monstrous development in the calf may hinder calving, it is 
well to consider shortly the different directions in which these devi- 
ations from the natural form, appear. Their origin and significance 
will be rendered clearer if we divide them according to the fault of 
development in individual cases. Monsters are such — 

(1) From absence of parts — absence of head, limb, or other organ — 
arrested development. 

(2) From some organ being unnaturally small, as a dwarfed head, limb, 
trunk, etc. — arrested deyekniment. 

(3) From unnatural division of parts— cleft lips, palate, head, trunk, 
limbs, etc. — abnormal growth. 

(4) From the absence of natural divisions — absence of mouth, nose, 
eye, anus, the cloven foot of ox or pig becomes solid like that of the 
horse, etc. — confluence of parts which are rightfully separate. 

(5) From the fusion of parts — both eyes replaced by central one, both 
nostrils merged into one central opening, etc. — confluence of parts. 

(6) From unnatural position or form of parts — curved nose, neck, 
back, limbs, etc. — lack of balance in the growth of muscles during 
development. 

(7) From excessive growth of one or more organs — enormous size of 
head, double penis, superfluous digits, etc. — redundancy of growth at 
given points. 

(8) From imperfect differentiation of the sexual organs — hermaphro- 
dites (organs intermediate between male and female), male organs with 
certain feminine characters, female organs with certain well-marked 
male characters. 

(9) From the doubling of parts, or of the entire body — double mon- 
sters, double heads, double bodies, extra limbs, etc. — redundant devel- 
opment. (Plate xix, Figs. 1, 2, 3.) 

The causes of monstrosities are varied. Some, like extra digits, lack 
of horns, etc., run in families, which produce them with absolute cer- 
tainty when bred in the direct line, although they were originally 
acquired peculiarities, which have merely been fixed by long habit in 
successive generations. The earliest horse had five toes, and even the 
most recent fossil horse had three toes, of which the two lateral ones 
are still represented in the modern horse by the two splint bones. Yet 
if our horse develops an extra toe it is pronounced a monstrosity. A 
more genuine monstrosity is the solid-hoofed pig, in which two toes 
have been merged into one. Another of the same kind is the solid 
shank bone of the ox, which consists of two bones united into one, but 
which are still found apart in the early fetus. Though originally 
acquired peculiarities, these now breed as invariably as color or form. 



204 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Other monstrosities seem to have started in too close breeding, by 
which the powers of symmetrical development are impaired, just as the 
procreative power weakens under continuous breeding from the closest 
blood relations. A monstrosity consisting in the absence of an organ 
often depends on a simple lack of development, the result of disease or 
injury, as a young bone is permanently shortened by being broken 
across the soft part between the shaft and the end, the only part where 
increase in length can take place. As the result of the injury the soft 
growing layer becomes prematurely hard and all increase in length at 
that end of the bone ceases. This will account for some cases of 
absence of eye, limb, or other organ. 

Sometimes a monstrosity is due to the inclosure of one ovum in 
another, while the latter is still but a soft mass of cells and can easily 
close around the first. Here each ovum has an independent life, and 
they develop simultaneously, only the outer one having direct connec- 
tion with the womb, and being furnished with abundant nourishment 
advances most rapidly and perfectly, while the inclosed and starved 
ovum is dwarfed and imperfect often to the last degree. 

In many cases of excess of parts, the extra part or member is mani- 
festly derived from the same ovum, and even the same part of the 
ovum, being merely effort of a redundancy and vagary of growth. 
Such cases include most instances of extra digits or other organs, 
and even of double monsters, as manifested by the fact that such extra 
organs grow from the normal identical organs. Hence the extra 
digit is attached to the normal digit, the extra head to the one 
neck, and extra tail to the croup, extra teeth to the existing teeth, 
and even two similarly formed bodies are attached by some point 
common to both, as the navels, breastbones, back, etc. (Plate xix. 
Figs. 1, 2, 3.) This shows that both have been derived from the same 
primitive layer of the embryo, which possessed the plastic power of 
building up a given structure or set of organs. An inclosed ovum, on 
the other hand, has no such identity or similarity of structure to the 
part with which it is connected, showing an evident primary inde- 
pendence of both life and the power of building tissues and organs. 
The power of determining extra growth along a given natural line is 
very highly developed in the early embryo, and is equally manifest in 
the mature example of some of the lower forms of animal life. Thus 
a newt will grow a new tail when that member has been cut off, and a 
starfish will develop as many new starfishes as the pieces made by cutting 
up the original one. This power of growth in the embryo and in the 
lower forms of animals is comparable to the branching out again of 
a tree at the places from which branches have been lopped. The 
presence of this vegetable-like power of growth in the embryo accounts 
for most double monsters. 

The influence of disease in modifying growth in the early embryo, 
increasing, decreasing, distorting, etc., is well illustrated in the experi- 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 205 

ments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, or otherwise 
disturbing the connections of eggs, and thereby producing monstrosities. 
One can easily understand how inflammations and other causes of dis- 
turbed circulation in the womb, fetal membranes, or fetns would cause 
similar distortions and variations in the growing offspring. It is doubt- 
less largely in the same way that certain mental disturbances of a very 
susceptible dam affect the appearance of the progeny. The monstros- 
ities Avhich seriously interfere with calving are mainly such as consist 
in extra members or head, which can not be admitted into the passages 
at the same time; where some organ of the body has attained to extra 
size; where a blighted ovum has been inclosed in the body of a more 
perfect one, or where the body or limbs are so contracted or twisted 
that the calf must enter the passages doubled up. 

Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the distorted mem- 
bers by the force of traction; in other cases the muscles or tendons 
must be cut across on the side to which the body or limbs are bent, to 
allow of such straightening. Thus the muscles on the concave side of 
a wry neck, or the cords behind the shank bones of a contracted limb 
may be cut to allow of these parts being brought into the passages, and 
there will still be wanting the methods demanded for bringing up 
missing limbs or head, for which see paragraphs below. In most cases 
of monstrosity by excess of overgrowth it becomes necessary to cut off 
the supernumerary or overdeveloped parts, and in this the same general 
principles must be followed as laid down in Embryotomy. 

TABLE OF WRONG PRESENTATIONS OF THE CALF. 

Simultaneous presentation of twins. 

{Limbs curved at the knee. Flexor tendons shortened. 
Limb crossed over the back of the neck. 
Limb bent back at the knee. 
Limb bent back from the shoulder, 
f Head bent downward on the neck. 
Head and neck turned downward beneath the breast. 
Head turned to one side upon the side of the neck. 
Head and neck turned back on the side of the chest and 

abdomen 
Head turned upward and backward on the back, 
f Hind limbs rotated outward. Toes and stifles turned out- 
Hind limbs { ward. 

[ Hind limbs bent forward, their feet resting in the pelvis. 

Transverse Back of the calf turned to the right or left side. 

c Back of the calf turned to the floor of the pelvis and 

l Inverted \ udder. 

d f f Hind limb bent on itself at the hock. Hock and buttocks 

.o +2 Hind limbs { present. 

JS -g { l^Hind limb bent at the hips. Buttocks present. 

o § i Transverse Back of calf turned to the right or left side. 

p, ^Inverted Back of calf turned to the floor of the pelvis and udder. 



Head 



Position of calf transverse. . 



206 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

f Heart up toward the spine, 

Back and loins ) n ... e ... .. , croup toward udder. 

. i Position 01 call vertical ' i_ , ■ , , 

presented. ^ | Head down toward udder, 

( croup toward spine. 

[ Head toward the right side, 

I croup toward the left. 

Head toward the left side, 

croup toward the right. 

f Head toward right side, croup 

Breast and ahdo- ) t> ■>■ c i-ct toward left. 

„„..,.„„„„. *-„A / Position of calf transverse ' , , 

men presented. \ Head toward left side, croup 

[ toward right. 

These include all general presentations, yet other subsidiary ones 
will at once occur to the attentive reader. Thus, in each anterior or 
posterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned downward or 
to one side, the case may be complicated by the bending back of 
one or more members as a whole, or at the joint just above the shank- 
bones (knee or hock). So also in such anterior presentation the head 
may be turned back. 

HEAD AND PORE PEET PRESENTED — BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE. 

The calf has a greater diameter from above down (spine to breast- 
bone) than it has from side to side, and the same is true of the passage 
of the pelvis of the cow, which measures, on an average, Scinches 
from above downward, and T-^- inches from side to side. Hence, the 
calf passes most easiTy with its back upward, and when turned with its 
back to one side calving is always tardy and may be difficult or impos- 
sible. The obvious remedy is to rotate the calf on its own axis until 
its spine turns towards the spine of the cow. The operation is not 
difficult if the body of the calf is not yet fixed in the passages. The 
presenting feet are twisted over each other in the direction desired, 
and this is continued until the head and spine have assumed their proper 
place. If the body is firmly engaged in the passages the skin of the 
whole engaged portion should be freely lubricated with lard, and the 
limbs and head twisted over each other as above. The limbs may be 
twisted by an assistant where the head is manipulated by the operator, 
who drags on the rope turned halfway round the limbs, and assists in 
the rotation with his other hand in the passages. 

HEAD AND PORE FEET PRESENTED — BACK TURNED DOWN TOWARD 

THE UDDER. 

This position (Plate xvi, Fig. 6) is unnatural, and the parturition is 
difficult for two reasons : first, the natural curvature of the fetus is op- 
posed to the natural curvature of the passages; and, second, the thick- 
est part of the body of the calf (the upper) is engaged in the narrowest- 
part of the passage of the pelvis (the lower.) Yet unless the calf is 
especially large and the pelvis of the cow narrow, parturition may 
usually be accomplished in this way spontaneously, or with very little 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 207 

assistance in the way of traction on the limbs. If this can not be 
accomplished two courses are open: first, to take the calf as when the 
back is turned to one side, and, second, to push back the presenting fore 
limbs and head, and search for and bring up the hind limbs, when the 
presentation will be a natural posterior one. 

PRESENTATION OF THE HIND FEET WITH THE BACK TURNED TO ONE 

SIDE OR DOWNWARD. 

These are the exact counterparts of the two conditions last described, 
are beset with similar drawbacks, and are to be dealt with on the same 
general principles. (Plate xvn, Fig. 4.) With the back turned to one 
side, the body should be rotated until the back turns toward the spine 
of the. dam, and with the back turned down it must be extracted in 
that position (care being taken that the feet do not perforate the roof 
of the vagina), or it must be rotated on its own axis until the back 
turns upward, or the hind limbs must be pushed back and the fore 
limbs and head advanced, when the presentation will be a natural 
anterior one. 

IMPACTION OF TWINS IN THE PASSAGE. 

It is very rare to have twins enter the passages together so as to 
become firmly impacted. As a rule each of the twins has its own sep- 
arate membranes, and as the water-bags of the one will naturally first 
enter and be the first to burst, so the calf which occupied those mem- 
branes will be the first to enter the passage and the other will be 
thereby excluded. When the membranes of both twins have burst 
without either calf having become engaged in the pelvis, it becomes 
possible for the fore legs of the one and the hind legs of the other to 
enter at one time, and if the straining is very violent they may become 
firmly impacted. (Plate xviii, Fig. 1.) The condition maybe recognized 
by the fact that two of the presenting feet have their fronts turned for- 
ward, while the two others have their fronts turned backward. If the 
four feet belonged to one natural calf they would all have the same di- 
rection. By means of this difference in direction we can easily select 
the two feet of one calf, place running nooses upon them just above the 
hoofs or fetlocks, and have an assistant drag upon the ropes while the 
feet of the other calf are pushed back. In selecting one of the twins 
to come first several considerations should have weight. The one that 
is most advanced in the passage is, of course, the first choice. Though 
the forefeet of one are presented, yet if the head is not in place, the calf 
presenting by its hind feet is to be chosen as being less likely to 
obstruct. Again, if for either calf one limb only is presented and the 
other missing, the one presenting two feet should be selected to come 
first. As soon as the one calf has been advanced so as to occupy the 
pelvis, the other will be crowded back so that it will not seriously 
obstruct. 



208 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

FORE LIMBS CURVED AT THE KNEE — LIMBS SPRAWLING OUTWARD. 

In this case not only are the knees somewhat bent in a curve but the 
calf has a position as if it rested on its breastbone, while the legs were 
drawn apart and directed to the right and left. The shonlder blades 
being drawn outward from the chest and the elbows turned out, the 
muscles extending from the trunk to the limb are unduly stretched and 
keep the knees bent and the feet directed outward so as to press on the 
sides of the passages. They become retarded in their progress as com- 
pared with the more rapidly advancing head, and may bruise or even 
lacerate the walls of the vagina. It would seem easy to rectify this by 
extending the legs, but the already tense and overstretched muscles 
operate against extension in the present position, and it is not easy to 
rotate the limbs so as to apply the shoulder fiat against the side of the 
chest. Under these circumstances a repeller (Plate xx, Fig. 7) may be 
planted in the breast, and the body of the calf pushed backward into 
the womb, when the limbs will extend easily under traction and the 
presentation becomes at once natural. 

FORE LIMBS CURVED AT KNEE — FLEXOR TENDONS SHORTENED. 

In this case the feet will press against the floor of the pelvis though 
the limb has no outward direction, and the shoulder meanwhile presses 
against the roof of the same passage. Unless the knees can be suffi- 
ciently straightened by force a knife must be employed to cut across the 
cords behind the knee, when the limbs may be straightened sufficiently. 

FORE LIMBS FLEXED AT KNEE — FLEXOR TENDONS UNSHORTENED. 

This is mostly seen in cases in which the body ol the calf is in the 
X^roper position, its back being turned up toward the back of the dam, 
and in cows with a drooping abdomen. The feet have been sirpposed 
to catch beneath the brim of the pelvis and being retarded while the 
head advances into the passages they get bent at the knee, and the 
nose and knees present. (Plate xvi, Fig. 2.) The calf, however, is not an 
inanimate body advanced by the mere contraction of the womb, but it 
moves its limbs freely under the stimulus of the unwonted compression, 
and in moving the feet as they are advanced they slip down over the 
pelvic brim and finding no other firm support they bend back until, 
under the impulsion, they can no longer straighten out again. The 
knees, therefore, advance with the neck and head, but the feet remain 
bent back. The result is that the upper part of the limb is also flexed, 
and the shoulder blade and arm bone with their masses of investiug 
muscles are carried backward and applied on the side of the chest, 
greatly increasing the bulk of this already bulky part. As the elbow 
is carried back on the side of the chest, the forearm from elbow to knee 
further increases the superadded masses of the shoulder and renders 
it difficult or impossible to drag the mass through the passages. When 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 209 

the fore limbs are fully extended, on the contrary, the shoulder blade is 
extended forward on the smallest and narrowest part of the chest; the 
arm bone with its muscles is in great part applied against the side of 
the back part of the neck, and the forearm is continued forward by the 
side of the head so that the nose lies between the knees. In this natu- 
ral presentation the presenting body of the calf forms a long wedge or 
cone, the increase of which is slow and gradual until it reaches the 
middle of the chest. 

The difficulty of extending the fore limbs will be in proportion to 
the advance of the head through the pelvic cavity. In the early stage 
all that is necessary may be to introduce the oiled hand, the left one 
for the right leg or the right one for the left, and passing the hand from 
the knee on to the foot to seize the foot in the palm, bend it forcibly on 
the fetlock, and lift it .up over the brim of the pelvis, the knee being, 
of course, pressed upward against the spine. As soon as the foot has 
been raised above the brim of the pelvis (into the passage) the limb 
can be straightened out with the greatest ease. 

When, however, the shoulders are already engaging in the pelvis 
the feet can not thus be lifted up, and to gain room a repeller (Plate xx, 
Fig. 7) must be used to push back the body of the calf. This is an 
instrument with a long straight stem, divided at the end into two short 
branches (2 to 3 inches long) united to the stem by hinges so that they 
can be brought into a line with the stem for introduction into the womb 
and then spread to be implanted in the breast. In the absence of a 
repeller a smooth round fork-handle may be used, the prongs having 
been removed from the other end. A third device is to have an assist- 
ant strip his arm to the shoulder and, standing back to back with the 
operator, to introduce his right arm into the passages along with the 
operator's left (or vice versa) and push back the body of the calf while 
the operator seeks to bring up a limb. The repeller or staff having 
been planted safely in the breast of the calf, an assistant pushes upon 
it in a direction either forward or slightly upward so as not only to fol- 
low the natural curve of the body and favor its turning in the line of 
that curve within the womb, but also to carry the shoulders upward 
toward the spine and secure more room for bringing up the missing 
feet. It is good policy to first put a halter (Plate xxi, Figs. 4a and 46) on 
the head or a noose (Plate xxi, Fig. 3) on the lower jaw and a rope round 
each limb at the knee so as to provide against the loss of any of these 
parts when the body is pushed back into the womb. This offers the 
further advantage that by dragging upon these ropes the body can be 
advanced in the passage until the foot is reached, when the rope must 
be slackened and the repeller used to secure room for bringing up the 
foot. If the cow is lying, the operator should first secure the foot on 
the upper side and then, if necessary, turn the cow on its opposite side 
so as to bring up the other. 

In using the instruments some precautions are demanded. They 
24697 14 



210 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

must be invariably warmed before they are introduced, and they should 
be smeared with lard or oil to make them pass easily and without fric- 
tion. The assistant who is pushing on the instrument must be warned 
to stop if at any time resistance gives way. This may mean the turning 
of the fetus, in which case the object of repulsion has been accomplished ; 
but much more probably it implies the displacement of the instrument 
from the body of the fetus, and unguarded pressure may drive it through 
the walls of the womb. 

When the calf entered the passage with its back turned down toward 
the belly and udder, the bending back of the fore limbs is rare, prob- 
ably because the feet can find a straighter and more uniform surface of 
resistance in the upper wall of the womb and the backbone, and do not 
slide over a crest into an open cavity as they do over the brim of the 
pelvis. The weight of the calf, too, gravitating downward, leaves more 
room for the straightening of the bent limbs, so that the desired relief 
is much more easily secured. The manipulation is the same in prin- 
ciple, only one must add the precaution of a steady traction on the feet 
in extraction, lest, owing to the adverse curvature of the fetus, the 
hoofs be suddenly forced through the roof of the vagina, and, perhaps, 
the rectum as well, during a specially powerful labor pain. 

When the back of the calf is turned to the right side or the left, the 
main difference is that in addition to straightening the limbs the fetus 
must be rotated to turn its back upward before extraction is attempted. 
In this case, too, it may be difficult to bring up and straighten the lower 
of the two limbs until the body has been rotated into its proper posi- 
tion. Cord the upper straightened limb and head, then rotate the body, 
and search for the second missing limb. 

FORE LIMBS BENT BACK FROM THE SHOULDERS. 

This is an exaggeration of the condition just named, and is much 
more difficult to remedy, owing to the distance and inaccessibility of the 
missing limb. It usually happens with the proper position of the body, 
the back of the calf being turned toward the back of the mother. The 
head presents in the passage, and may even protrude from the vulva 
during an active labor pain, but it starts back like a spring when the 
straining ceases. Examination with the oiled hand in the intervals 
between the pains fails to detect the missing limb or limbs. (Plate xvi, 
Fig. 1.) If, however, the hand can be introduced during a pain it may 
be possible to reach the elbow or upper part of the fore arm. In the 
absence of a pain a halter or noose on the head may be used to advance 
the whole body until the forearm can be seized just below the elbow. 
This being firmly held, and the head or body pushed back into the 
womb, room may be secured for bringing up the knee. The forearm is 
used as a lever, its upper part being strongly forced back while its 
lower part is pressed forward. If a pain supervenes the hold must be 
retained, and whatever gain has been made must be held if possible. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 211 

Then during the next pain, by pushing back the body and continuing 
to operate the forearm as a lever, a still farther advance may be made. 
As the knee is brought up in this way, the hand is slid down from the 
elbow toward the knee, which is finally brought up over the brim of the 
pelvis and into the passage. It is now corded at the knee, and the 
subsequent procedure is as described in the last article. In a large 
roomy cow with a small calf the latter may pass with one or both fore 
legs bent back, but this is a very exceptional case, and as early assist- 
ance is the most successful, there should never be delay in hope of such 
a result. 

ONE FORE LIMB CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK. 

This is a rare obstacle to calving, but one that is not altogether 
unknown. The hand introduced into the passage feels the head and 
one fore foot, and farther back on the same side the other foot, from 
which the limb can be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. 
(Plate xvi, Fig. 3.) This foot projecting transversely is liable to bruise 
or tear the vagina. If still deeply engaged in the vagina, it may be 
seized and pushed across to the opposite side of the neck, when the 
presentation will be natural. 

THE HEAD BENT DOWN BENEATH THE NECK. 

In this case, with drooping belly and womb allowing the brim of the 
pelvis to form a ridge, the advancing calf having unduly depressed its 
nose strikes it on the brim of the pelvis, and the neck advancing, the 
head is bent back and the poll and ears either enter the pelvis or strike 
against its brim. The two fore feet present, but the^ make no progress, 
and the oiled hand introduced can detect no head until the poll is felt 
at the entrance of the pelvis, between the fore arms. The two fore feet 
must be fixed with running nooses, and dragged on moderately while 
the oiled hand seeks to bring up the head. The hand is slid down over 
the forehead and brim of the pelvis until the nose is reached, when it 
is passed into the mouth, the muzzle resting in the palm of the hand. 
The legs are now pushed upon, and in the space thus gained the muzzle 
is drawn up so as to enter it into the pelvis. In doing this the operator 
must carefully see that the mouth does not drop open so that the sharp 
front teeth cut through the floor of the womb. Should this danger 
threaten, the hand should be made to cover the lower jaw as well. The 
lessened security of the hold is more than compensated by the safety 
of the procedure. With the nose in the pelvis it has only to be drawn 
forward and the parturition is natural. 

HEAD BENT DOWN BENEATH THE BREAST. 

This is an exaggerated condition of that last named. The head 
arrested by the brim of the pelvis and already bent back on the neck, is 



212 DISEASES OF CATTLE 

pressed farther with each successive throe until it has passed between 
the fore legs and lodges beneath the breast bone. (Plate xvi, Fig. 4.) Oil 
examination the narrow upper border of the neck is felt between the 
fore arms, but as a rule the head is out of reach below. Keeping the 
hand on the neck and dragging on the feet by the aid of ropes, the 
hand may come to touch and seize the ear, or still better, one or two fin- 
gers may be inserted into the orbit of the eye. Then, in pushing back 
upon the limbs, with or without the aid of a repeller applied against 
the shoulder, space may be secured to draw the head into a vertical 
position, and even to slip down the hand so as to seize the nose. Should 
it prove impossible to draw up the head with the unassisted fingers, a 
blunt hook (Plate xxi, Fig. G) may be inserted into the orbit, on which 
an assistant may drag while another pushes upon the limbs or repeller. 
Meanwhile the operator may secure an opportunity of reaching and 
seizing the nose or of passing a blunt hook into the angle of the month. 
Success will be better assured if two hooks (Plate xxi, Fig. 7) are in- 
serted in the two orbits so as to draw up the head more evenly. In other 
cases a noose may be placed on the upper jaw, or even around botli 
jaws, and traction made upon this and on the hooks in the orbits while 
the legs are pushed back, and while the operator pushes back on the 
poll or forehead. In still more difficult cases in which even the orbits 
can not be reached a sharp hook on the end of a straight iron rod (Plate 
xx, Fig. 2) may be inserted over the lower jaw as far forward as it can 
be reached, and by dragging upon this while the body is pushed back 
the head will be brought up sufficiently to allow the operator to reach 
the orbit or nose. If even the jaw can not be reached the hook may be 
inserted in the neck as near to the head as possible and traction em- 
ployed so as to bring the head within reach. 

In all such cases the cow's head should be turned downhill, and in 
case of special difficulty she should be turned on her back and held 
there until the head is secured. In old standing cases, with the womb 
closely clasping the body of the calf, relaxation may be sought by the 
use of chloroform or a full dose of chloral hydrate, 2 ounces ; and the 
free injection of warm water into the womb will also be useful. 

HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER. 

With a natural anterior presentation this may happen because of the 
imperfect dilatation of the mouth of the womb. Under the throes of 
the mother the fore feet pass through the narrow opening into the 
vagina, while the nose striking against it, and unable to enter, is pressed 
backward into the womb and turns aside on the right or left shoulder. 
The broad muzzle of the calf forms an especial obstacle to entrance 
and favors this deviation of the head. The worst form of this devia- 
tion is the old standing one with shortening of the muscles of the neck 
on that side, and oftentimes distortion of the face and neck bones, as 
noticed under monstrosities. 



. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 213 

When the head is bent on the shoulder the feet appear in the natura 1 
way, but no progress is made, and examination reveals the absence of 
the nose from between the knees, and farther back from above and 
between the elbows a smooth rounded mass is felt extending to the 
right or left, which further examination will identify with the neck. 
Following the upper border of this the hand reaches the crown of the 
head with the ears, and still farther the eyes, or even in a small calf 
the nose. 

As the bulky head of the calf can not be extracted along with the 
shoulders it becomes necessary to push back the body of the fetus and 
straighten out the head and neck. The cow should be laid with its 
head downhill and with that side up toward which the head is turned. 
If the throes are very violent, or the womb strongly contracted on the 
calf, it may be best to seek relaxation by giving chloroform, or 2 ounces 
of laudanum, or 2 ounces chloral hydrate. If the calf or the passages 
are dry, sweet oil maybe injected, or the whole may be liberally smeared 
with fresh lard. In the absence of these, warm water rendered slightly 
slippery by castile soap may be injected into the womb in quantity. 
Bopes with running nooses are placed on the presenting feet and the 
oiled hand introduced to find the head. If, now, the fingers can be 
passed inside the lower jaw bone, and drag the head upward and toward 
the passage, it unwinds the spiral turn given to the neck in bending 
back, and greatly improves the chances of bringing forward the nose. 
If, at first, or if now, the lower jaw can be reached, a noose should be 
placed around it behind the incisor teeth and traction made upon this 
so that the head may continue to be turned, forehead up, toward the 
spine and jaws down, thereby continuing to undo the screw-like curve 
of the neck. If, on the contrary, the nose is dragged upon by a cord 
passing over the upper border of the neck, the screw-like twist is 
increased and the resistance of the bones and joiuts of the neck pre- 
vents any straightening of the head. As soon as the lower jaw has 
been seized by the hand or noose, a repeller (Plate xx, Fig. 7), planted on 
the inside of the elbow or shoulder most distant from the head, should 
be used to push back the body and turn it in the womb so that the 
head may be brought nearer to the outlet. In this way the head can 
usually be brought into position and the further course of delivery will 
be natural. 

But sometimes the lower jaw can not be reached with the hand, and 
then the orbit or, less desirably, the ear, may be availed of. The ear 
may be pulled by the hand, and by the aid of the repeller on the other 
shoulder the calf may be so turned that the lower jaw may be reached 
and availed of. Better still, a clamp (Plate xviii, Figs. 3 and 4) is firmly 
fixed on the ear and pulled by a rope, while the repeller is used on the 
opposite shoulder, and the hand of the operator pulls on the lower 
border of the neck and lifts it toward the other side. To pull on the 
upper border of the neck is to increase the spiral twist, while to raise 



214 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the lower border is to undo it. If the outer orbit can be reached, the 
fingers may be inserted into it so as to employ traction, or a blunt fin- 
ger hook (Plate xxr, Fig. 8) may be used, or a hook with a rope attached, 
or, finally, a hook on the end of a long staff. Then, with the assistance 
of the repeller, the body may he so turned and the head advanced that 
the lower jaw may be reached and availed of. 

In case not even the ears nor orbit can be reached, a cord should be 
passed around the neck of the calf as near to the head as possible, and 
traction made upon that while the opposite shoulder is pushed toward 
the opposite side by the repeller, assisted by the hand dragging on the 
lower border of the neck. To aid the hand in passing a rope round the 
neck a cord-carrier (Plate xxi, Fig. 5) is in use. It fails, however, to 
help us in the most difficult part of the operation, the passing of the 
cord down on the deep or farthest side of the neck, and, to remedy this, 
I have devised a cord-carrier, furnished with a ring at the end, a joint 
6 or 8 inches from the end, and another ring on the handle, close to this 
joint. (Plate xx, Fig. 4.) A cord is passed through both rings and a 
knot tied on its end, just back of the terminal ring. The instrument, 
straightened out, is inserted until it reaches just beyond the upper 
border of the neck, when, by dragging on the cord the movable segment 
is bent down on the farther side of the neck, and is pushed on until it 
can be felt at its lower border. The hand now seizes the knotted end 
of the cord beneath the lower border of the neck and pulls it through 
while the carrier is withdrawn, the cord sliding through its rings. The 
cord, pushed up as near to the head as possible, is furnished w T ith a 
running noose by tying the knotted end round the other, or better, the 
two ends are twisted around each other so as to give a firm hold on the 
neck without dangerously compressing the blood vessels. By pushing 
on the opposite shoulder with the repeller, and assisting with the hand 
on shoulder^ breastbone, or lower border of the neck, such a change of 
position will be secured as will speedily bring the head within reach. 
Afterward proceed as described above. 

These cases are always trying, but it is very rarely necessary to 
resort to embryotomy. When absolutely required first remove one 
fore limb, and then, if still unsuccessful, the other, after which the 
head can easily be secured. (See Embryotomy, p. 222.) 

HEAD TURNED UPWARD AND BACKWARD. 

In this case the face rests upon the spine; the fore feet appear alone 
in the passage, but fail to advance, and on examination the rounded 
inferior border of the neck can be felt, extending upward and back- 
ward beneath the spine of the dam, and if the calf is not too large the 
hand may reach the lower jaw or even the muzzle. (Plate xvi, Fig. 5.) 

A repeller is planted in the breast and the body of the calf pushed 
backward and downward so as to make room and bring the head nearer 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 215 

to the passage. Or in some cases the body may be pushed back suf- 
ficiently by the use of the fore limbs alone. Meanwhile the head is seized 
by the ear or the eye socket, or, if it can be reached, by the lower jaw, 
and pulled downward into position as space is secured for it. If the 
band alone is insufficient the blunt hooks may be inserted in the orbits 
or in the angle of the mouth, or a noose may be placed on the lower 
jaw, and by traction the head will be easily advanced. In case of a 
large fetus, the head of which is beyond reach, even when traction is 
made on the limbs, a rope may be passed around the neck and pulled, 
while the breast-bone is pressed downward and backward by the 
repeller, and soon the change of position will bring the orbit or lower 
jaw within reach. With the above position the standing position is 
most favorable for success. But if the calf is placed with its back 
down toward the udder, and if the head is bent down under the brim 
of the pelvis, the best position for the cow is on her back, with her 
head downhill. 

In neglected cases, with death and putrefaction of the fetus and 
dryness of the passages, it may be necessary to extract in pieces. (See 
Embryotomy.) 

OUTWARD DIRECTION OP THE STIFLES — ABDUCTION OF HIND LIMBS. 

As an obstacle to parturition, this is rare in cows. It is most likely 
to take place in cows with narrow hip bones, and when the service has 
been made by a bull having great breadth across the quarter. The calf, 
taking after the sire, presents an obstacle to calving in the breadth of its 
quarters; and if at the same time the toes and stifles are turned exces- 
sively outward and the hocks inward the combined breadth of the hip 
bones above and the stifles below may be so great that the pelvis will 
not easily admit them. After the fore feet, head, and shoulders have all 
passed out through the vulva further progress suddenly and unaccount- 
ably ceases, and some dragging on the parts already delivered does not 
serve to bring away the hind parts. The oiled hand introduced along 
the side of the calf will discover the obstacle on the stifle joints turned 
directly outward and projecting on each side beyond the bones which 
circumscribe laterally the" front entrance of the pelvis. The evident 
need is to turn the stifles inward, and this may be attempted by the 
hand introduced by the side of the calf, which is meanwhile rotated 
gently on its own axis to favor the change of position. To correct the 
deviation of the hind limb is, however, very difficult, as the limbs them- 
selves are out of reach and can not be used as levers to assist. If noth- 
ing can be done by pushing back the body of the calf and rotating it, 
and by pressure by the hand in the passages, the only resort appears 
to be to skin the calf from the shoulder back, cut it in two as far back 
as can be reached, then push the buttocks well forward into the womb 
and bring up the hind feet and so deliver. 



21 6 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

THE HIND LIMBS EXCESSIVELY BENT ON THE BODY AND ENGAGED 

IN THE PELVIS. 

In this case the presentation is apparently a normal anterior one; 
fore limbs and head advance naturally and the parturition proceeds 
until half the chest has passed through the external passages, when 
suddenly progress ceases and no force will secure farther advance. An 
examination with oiled hand detects the presence in the passages of 
the hind feet and usually the hind legs up to above the hocks. (Plate 
xvn, Fig. 1.) 

The indications for treatment are to return the hind limbs into the 
body of the womb. If they have not advanced too far into the pelvis 
this may be done as follows : A rope with running noose is passed over 
each hind foot and drawn tight around the lower part of the hock; 
the ropes are then passed through the two rings in the small end of 
the rotating instrument (Plate xx, Fig. 5) which is slid into the pas- 
sages until it reaches the hocks, when the ropes, drawn tight, are tied 
round the handle of the instrument. Then in the intervals between 
the pains the hocks are pushed forcibly back into the womb. If by 
this means flexion can be effected in hocks and stifles success will fol- 
low; the hind feet will pass into the womb and clear of the brim of 
the pelvis, and the body may now be advanced without hindrance, the 
hind limbs falling into place when the hip joints are extended. At the 
same time the pressure upon hind limbs must not be relaxed until the 
buttocks are engaged in the pelvis, as otherwise the feet may again get 
over the brim and arrest the progress of delivery. 

When the hind limbs are already so jammed into the pelvis that it is 
impossible to return them, the calf must be sacrificed to save the mother. 
Cords with running nooses are first put on the two hind feet. The 
body must be skinned from the shoulders back as far as can be reached, 
and is to be then cut in two, if possible, back of the last rib. The 
remainder of the trunk is now pushed back into the body of the womb, 
and by traction upon the cords the hind feet are brought up into the 
passages, and the extraction will be comparatively easy. 

HIND PRESENTATION WITH ONE OR BOTH LEGS BENT AT THE HOCK. 

After the bursting of the water bags, though labor pains continue, 
no part of the fetus appears at the vulva unless it be the end of the 
tail. On examination the buttocks are felt wedged against the spine 
at the entrance of the pelvis, and beneath them the bent hock joints 
resting on the brim of the pelvis below. (Plate xvn, Fig. 3.) The calf 
had been caught by the labor pains while the limb was bent beneath 
it, and has been jammed into or against the rim of the pelvis so that 
extension of the limb became impossible. With the thigh bent on the 
flank, the leg on the thigh, and the shank on the leg, and all at once 
wedged into the passage, delivery is practically impossible. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 217 

The obvious remedy is to push the croup upward and forward and 
extend the hind legs, and in the early stages this can usually be accom- 
plished in the cow. A repeller (Plate xx, Fig. 7) is planted across the 
thighs and pointed upward toward the spine of the cow, and pushed 
forcibly in this direction during the intervals between labor pains. 
Meanwhile the oiled hand seizes the shank just below the hock and 
uses it as a lever, pushing back the body and drawing forward the foot, 
thus effectually seconding the action of the repeller. Soon a distinct 
gain is manifest, and as soon as the foot can be reached it is bent back 
strongly at the fetlock, held in the palm of the hand and pulled up, 
while the repeller, pressiug on the buttocks, assists to make room for 
it. Iu this way the foot may be brought safely and easily over the 
brim of the pelvis without any risk of laceration of the womb by the 
foot. After the foot has been lifted over the brim the whole limb can 
be promptly and easily extended. In cases presenting special difficulty 
in raising the foot over the brim, help may be had by traction on a rope 
passed around in front of the hock, and later still by a rope with a noose 
fastened to the pastern. In the worst cases, with the buttocks and 
hocks wedged deeply into the passages, it may prove difficult or impossi- 
ble to push the buttocks back into the abdomen, and in such a case the 
extension of the hind limb is practically impossible without mutilation. 
In some roomy cows a calf may be dragged through the passages by 
ropes attached to the bent hocks, but even when this is possible there 
is great risk of laceration of the floor of the vagina by the feet. The 
next resort is to cut the hamstring just below the point of the hock and 
the tendon on the front of the limb (flexor metatarsi) just above the 
hock, and even the sinews behind the shank bone just below the hock. 
This allows the stifle and hock to move independently of each other, the 
one undergoing extension without entailing the extension of the other; 
it also allows both joints to flex completely, so that the impacted mass 
can pass through a narrower channel. If now, by dragging on the 
hocks and operating with the repeller on the buttocks, the latter can 
be tilted forward sufficiently to allow of the extension of the stifle, the 
jam will be at once overcome, and the calf may be extracted with the 
hock bent, but the stifle extended. If even this can not be accom- 
plished it may now be possible to extract the whole mass with both 
hocks and stifles fully bent. To attempt this, traction may be made on 
the rope around the hocks and on a sharp hook (Plate xx, Fig. 2) passed 
forward between the thighs and hooked on to the brim of the pelvis. 
Everything else failing, the offending limb or limbs may be cut off at 
the hip joint and extracted, after which extraction may proceed by 
dragging on the remaining limb, or by hooks on the hip bones. Very 
little is to be gained by cutting off the limb at the hock, and the stifle 
is less accessible than the hip, and amputation at the stifle gives much 
poorer results. 



218 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

HIND LIMBS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP — BREECH PRESENTATION. 

This is an exaggeration of the condition last described, only the hocks 
and stifles are fully extended and the whole limb carried forward 
beneath the belly. (Plate xvn, Fig. 2.) The water-bags appear and 
burst, but nothing presents unless it may be the tail. Examination iu 
this case detects the outline of the buttocks with the tail and anus at 
its upper part. 

The remedy, as in the case last described, consists in pushing the 
buttock upward and forward with a repeller, the cow being kept stand- 
ing and headed down hill, until the thigh bone can be reached, and used 
as a lever. Its upper end is pushed forward and its lower end raised 
until the joints becoming fully flexed, the point of the hock can be raised 
above the brim of the pelvis. If necessary a noose may be passed 
around the leg as far down toward the hock as possible and pulled on 
forcibly, while the hand presses forward strongly on the back of the leg 
above. When both hocks have been lodged above the brim of the 
pelvis the further procedure is as described under the last heading. 

If, however, the case is advanced and the buttocks wedged firmly into 
the passages, it may be impossible to safely push it back into the womb, 
and the calf must either be dragged through the passage as it is or the 
limbs or pelvis must be cut off. To successfully extract with a breech 
j>resentation, the cow must be large and roomy and the calf not too 
large. The first step in this case is to separate the pelvic bones on the 
two sides by cutting from before backward, exactly in the median line 
below and where the thighs come together above. This may be done 
with a strong embryotomy knife, but is most easily accomplished 
with the long embryotomy. (Plate xx, Fig. 3.) The form which I have 
designed (Plate xx, Fig. 1), with a short cutting branch jointed to the 
main stem, is to be preferred, as the short cutting piece may be folded 
on the main stem so that its cutting edge will be covered, and it can be 
introduced and extracted without danger. This is pushed forward 
beneath the calf's belly, and the cutting arm opened and inserted in 
front of the brim of the pelvis and pulled forcibly back through the 
whole length of the pelvic bones. The divided edges are now made to 
overlap each other and the breadth of the haunch is materially reduced. 
One end of the cord may then be passed forward by means of a cord- 
carrier (Plate xxi, Fig. 5), on the inner side of one thigh until it can be 
seized at the stifle by the hand passed forward on the outer side of that 
thigh. This end is now pulled back through the vagina, and the other 
end passed through the cord-carrier and passed forward on the inner 
side of the other thigh until it can be seized at the stifle by the hand 
passed forward outside that thigh. This end is drawn back through 
the vagina like the first, and is tied around the other so as to form a 
running noose. The rope is now drawn through the ring until it forms 
a tight loop, encircling the belly just in front of the hind limbs. On this 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 219 

strong traction can be made without interfering with the full flexion of the 
limbs on the body, and if the case is a suitable one, and the body of the 
fetus and the passages are both well lubricated with oil or lard, a suc- 
cessful parturition may be accomplished. A less desirable method is to 
put a rope round one thigh or a rope round each and drag upon these, 
but manifestly the strain is not so directly on the spine, and the limbs 
may be somewhat hampered in flexion. 

Tins method being inappli cable, the next resort is to cut off one or 
both hind limbs at the hip joint. Free incisions are made on the side 
of the haunch so as to expose the hip joint, and the muscles are cut away 
from the head of the thigh bone down to its narrow neck, around which 
a rope is passed and firmly fixed with a running noose. The joint is 
now cut into all around, and while traction is made on the cord the 
knife is inserted into the inner side of the joint and the round ligament 
severed. The cord may now be dragged upon forcibly, and the muscles 
and other parts cut through as they are drawn tense, until finally the 
whole member has been extracted. Traction on the rope round the 
other thigh will now suffice to extract, in the majority of cases, but if it 
should fail the other limb may be cut off in the same manner, and then 
hooks inserted in front of the brim of the pelvis or in the openings in 
the bones of its floor {obturator foramina) will give sufficient purchase 
for extraction. Another method is to insert a knife between the bone 
of the rump (sacrum) and the hip bone and sever their connections ; 
then cut through the joint (symphysis) between the two hip bones in the 
median line of the floor of the pelvis, and then Avitk a hook in the open- 
ing on the pelvic bones (obturator foramen) to drag upon the limb and 
cut the tense soft parts until the limb is freed and extracted. 

PRESENTATION OF THE BACK. 

In this presentation straining may be active, but after the rupture of 
the water-bags no progress is made, and the hand introduced will 
recognize the back with its row of spinous processes and the springing 
ribs at each side pressed against the entrance to the pelvis. (Plate xvn, 
Fig. 6.) The presence or absence of the ribs will show whether it is 
the region of the chest or tbe loins. By feeling along the line of spines 
until the ribs are met with Ave shall learn that the head lies in that 
direction. If, on the contrary, Ave follow the ribs until they disappear, 
and a blank space is succeeded by hip bones, it shows that we are 
approaching the tail. The head may be turned upAvard, downAvard, 
to the right side or to the left. 

The object must be to turn the fetus so that one extremity or the 
other can enter the passage, and the choice of Avhich end to bring for- 
Avard Avill depend on various considerations. If one end is much nearer 
the outlet than the other, that would naturally be selected for extrac- 
tion, but if both ends are equidistant the choice would fall on the hind 
end, as having only the two limbs to deal with, without any risk of 



220 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

complication from tlie liead. When the head is turned upward and 
forward it will usually be preferable to bring- up the hind limb, since, 
owing to the drooping of the womb into the abdomen, rotation of the 
fetus will usually be easier in that direction, and if successful the 
resulting position will be a natural posterior presentation, with the 
back of the calf turned toward the rump of the cow. Similarly with 
the croup turned upward and forward, that should be pushed on for- 
ward, and if the forefeet and head can be secured it will be a natural 
anterior presentation with the back of the calf turned upward toward 
the rump of the cow. 

The womb should be injected with warm water or oil, and the turn- 
ing of the calf will demand the combined action of the repeller and the 
hand, but in all such cases the operator has an advantage that the body 
of the fetus is wholly within the body of the womb, and therefore mov- 
able with comparative ease. No part is wedged into the pelvic pas- 
sages as a complication. The general principles are the same as in 
faulty presentations fore and hind, and no time should be lost in mak- 
ing the manipulations necessary to bring the feet into the pelvis, lest 
they get in bent or otherwise displaced and add unnecessary complica- 
tions. 

With a transverse direction of the calf, the head being turned to one 
side, the pressure must be directed laterally, so that the body will 
glide around on one side of the womb, and the extremities when reached 
must be promptly seized and brought into the passages. Sometimes a 
fortunate struggle of a live fetus will greatly aid in rectifying the 
position. 

BREAST AND ABDOMEN PRESENTED — ALL FOUR FEET IN THE PASSAGES. 

In this form the calf lies across the womb with its roached back 
turned forward and its belly toward the pelvis. All four feet may be 
extended and engaged in the passages, or one or more may be bent on 
themselves so as to lie in front of the pelvis. The head, too, may usu- 
ally be felt on the right side or the left, and if detected it serves to 
identify the exact position of the fetus. The position may further be 
decided upon by examination of the feet and limbs. With the limbs 
extended the front of the hoofs and the convex aspect of the bent pas- 
terns and fetlocks will look toward that flank in which lie the head and 
shoulders. On examination still higher the smooth, even outline of the 
knee and its bend, looking toward the hind parts, characterize the fore 
limb, while the sharp prominence of the point of the hock and the bend 
on the opposite side of the joint, looking toward the head, indicate the 
hind limb. (Plate xvn, Fig. 5.) 

The remedy for this condition is to be sought in repelling into the 
womb those limbs that are least eligible for extraction, and bringing 
into the passages the most eligible extremities. The most eligible will 
usually be those which project farthest into the passages, indicating 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 221 

the nearer proximity of that end of the calf. An exception may, how- 
ever, be made in favor of that extremity which will give the most nat- 
ural presentation. Thus if, owing to obliquity in the position of the 
fetus, the hind extremities promised a presentation with the back of 
the fetus turned down toward the udder, and the anterior extremities 
one with the back turned up toward the spine, the latter should be 
selected. Again, if the choice for the two extremities is eveidy bal- 
anced, the hind may be chosen as offering less risk of complication, 
there being no head to get displaced. 

Treatment. — The first step in the treatment is to place a running 
noose on each of the four feet, marking those of the fore limbs to dis- 
tinguish them from those of the hind. In case it is proposed to bring 
the anterior extremities into the passage, a noose should also be placed 
on the lower jaw. Then run the ropes attached to the two feet that 
are to be pushed back through the ring of a cord-carrier (Plate xxi, Fig. 
5), passing the rings down to the feet, and by the aid of the carrier 
push them well back into the womb and hold them there. Meanwhile 
drag upon the ropes attached to the two other feet so as to bring them 
into the passage (or in case of the anterior extremity on the two foot 
ropes and the head one). The other feet must be pushed back into the 
womb until the body of the calf is fully engaged in the passages. 
After this they can no longer find an entrance, but must follow as the 
body escapes. 

NEGLECTED AND AGGRAVATED CASES. 

In laying down the above rules for giving assistance in critical cases 
of calving it is not intimated that all cases and stages can be success- 
fully dealt with. Too often assistance is not sought for many hours or 
even days after labor pains and the escape of the waters intimate the 
danger of delay, and not seldom the long delay has been filled up with 
unintelligent and injurious attempts at rendering assistance, violent 
pulling when resistence is insurmountable without change of position, 
injuries to the vagina and womb by ill-considered but too forcibly exe- 
cuted attempts to change the position, the repeated and long-continued 
contact with rough hands and rougher ropes and hooks, the gashes 
with knives and lacerations with instruments in ignorant hands, the 
infecting material introduced on filthy hands and instruments, and the 
septic inflammations started in the now dry and tender passages and 
womb, and not unfrequently the death, putrefaction, and bloating of 
the calf in the womb, rendering the case extremely unpromising, and 
making it impossible to successfully apply many of the measures above 
recommended. The labor pains of the cow may have practically ceased 
from exhaustion ; the passages of the vagina may be so dry, tender, 
friable, red, and swollen that it requires considerable effort even to pass 
the oiled hand through them, and the extraction of the calf or any por- 
tion of it through such a channel seems a hopeless task; the womb 



222 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

may be equally dry and inflamed and swollen, so that its lining mem- 
brane or even its entire thickness is easily torn; the fetal membranes 
have lost their natural unctuous and slippery character, and cling- 
firmly to the dry walls of the womb, to the dry skin of the calf, or to 
the hands of the operator; the dead and putrefying calf maybe so 
bloated with gases that the womb has been overdistended by its pres- 
ence, and the two adhere so closely that the motion of the one on the 
other is practically impossible. In other cases reckless attempts to 
cut the calf in pieces have left raw surfaces with projecting bones 
which dangerously scratch and tear the womb and passages. 

In many cases the extreme resort must be had of cutting the fetus 
to pieces (embryotomy), or the still more redoubtable one of Caesarean 
section (extraction through the flank). 

DISSECTION OF THE UNBORN CALF — EMBRYOTOMY. 

In some cases the dissection of the calf is the only feasible means of 
delivering it through the natural passages, and while it is especially 
applicable to the dead calf, it is also on occasions called for in the case 
of the living. As a rule, a living calf should be preserved if possible, 
but if this threatens to entail the death of the cow, it is only in the case 
of offspring of rare value that its presentation is to be preferred. To 
those acquainted with the toil, fatigue, and discomfort of embryotomy, 
no dissuasion is necessary so long as there is a prospect of success from 
the simple and generally easier method of rectifying the faulty position 
of the calf. But when the correction of the jmsition is manifestly 
impossible, when distortions and monstrosities of the fetus successfully 
obstruct delivery; when the pelvic passages are seriously contracted 
by fractures and bony growths ; when the passages are virtually almost 
closed by swelling, or when the calf is dead and excessively swollen, 
no other resort may be available. In many cases of distortion and 
displacement the dismemberment of the entire calf is unnecessary, the 
removal of the offending member being all that is required. It will be 
convenient, therefore, to describe the various suboperations one by 
one, and in the order in which they are usually demanded. 

AMPUTATION OP THE FORE LIMB. 

In cutting off a fore limb it is the one presenting that should be 
selected, since it is much more easily operated on, and its complete 
removal from the side of the chest affords so much more space for 
manipulation that it is not often difficult to bring the missing limb or 
head into position. The first consideration is to skin the limb from the 
fetlock up and leave the skin attached to the body. The reasons for 
this are: (a) That the skin is the most resistant structure of the limb, 
and when it has been removed the entire limb can be easily detached ; 
(b) the tough skin left from the amputated limb may be used as a cord 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 223 

in subsequent traction on the body of the calf ; (c) the dissection and 
separation of the limb are far more safely accomplished under the pro- 
tection of the enveloping skin than if the operator's hands and instru- 
ments were in direct contact with the walls of the passages or womb; 
(d) the dissection can be much more easily effected while the skin is 
stretched by the left hand so as to form a comparatively firmer resist- 
ant point for the knife than when it is attempted to cut the soft, yield- 
ing, and elastic tissues which naturally offer little solid resistance, 
but constantly recede before the cutting edge of the instrument. The 
preservation of the skin is, therefore, a cardinal principle in the ampu- 
tation of all parts in which it is at all feasible. 

The presenting foot is inclosed in a noose and drawn well out of the 
passages. Then a circular incision through the skin is made around 
the limb just above the fetlock. From this the skin is slit up on the 
inner side of the limb to the breast. Then the projecting part of the 
limb is skinned up to the vulva, traction being made on the foot by an 
assistant so as to expose as much as possible. The embryotomy knife 
may now be taken (Plate xxi, Fig. 2), and a small hole having been cut 
in the free end of the detached portion of skin, that is seized by the left 
hand and extended while its firm connections with the deeper struc- 
tures are cut through. The looser connections can be more quickly 
torn through with the closed fist, or the tips of the four fingers held 
firmly together in a bine, or with the spud, of which there are several 
kinds. Much of the upper part of the limb can be skinned more 
speedily without the knife, but that must be resorted to to cut across 
tough bands whenever these interrupt the progress. The skinning 
should be carried upward on the outer side of the shoulder blade to 
the spine, or nearly so. Then with the knife the muscles attaching the 
elbow and shoulder to the breastbone are cut across, together with 
those on the inner side of the shoulder joint, and in front and behind 
it so far as these can be reached. Steady traction is now made upon 
the foot, the remaining muscles attaching the shoulder blade to the 
trunk are torn through with a crackling noise, and the whole limb, 
including the shoulder blade and its investing muscles, comes away. 
If the shoulder blade is left the bulk of the chest is not diminished, 
and nothing has been gained. Before going farther it is well to see 
whether the great additional space thus secured in the passages will 
allow of the missing limb or head to be brought into position. If not, 
the other presenting part, limb or head, is to be amputated and 
extracted. For the limb the procedure is a repetition of that just 
described. 

AMPUTATION OF THE HEAD. 

The head is first seized and drawn well forward, or even outside the 
vulva, by a rope with a running noose placed around the lower jaw just 
behind the incisor teeth, by a sharp hook inserted in the arch of the 



224 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

lower jaw behind the union of its two branches and back of the incisor 
teeth, or by hooks inserted in the orbits, or, finally, in case the whole 
head protrudes, by a halter. (Plate xxi, Fig. 4a and 4Jj.) 

In case the whole head protrudes, a circular incision through the skin 
is made just back of the ear, and the cut edge being held firmly by the 
left hand, the neck is skinned as far as it can be reached. Then the 
great ligamentous cord above the spine is cut across at the farthest 
available point, together with the muscles above and below the spine. 
Strong traction on the head will then detach it at this point and bring 
it away, but should there still be too much resistance the knife is 
inserted between the bodies of two vertebrae just behind one of the 
prominent points felt in the median line below, and their connecting 
fibrous cartilage is cut through, after which comparatively moderate 
pulling will bring it away. The detached neck and body at once slip 
back into the womb, and if the fore limbs are now brought up and 
pulled they are advanced so far upon the chest that the transverse 
diameter of that is greatly diminished, and delivery correspondingly 
facilitated. 

If the head is still inclosed in the vagina two methods are availa- 
ble: (1) The removal of the lower jaw and subsequent separation of 
the head from the neck; (2) the skinning of the whole head and its 
separation from the neck. 

To remove the lower jaw the skin is dissected away from it until the 
throat is reached. Then the muscles of the cheeks and side of the jaw 
(masseters) are cut through and those connecting the jaw with the 
neck. When traction is made on the rope round the lower jaw it will 
usually come away with little trouble. Should it resist, its posterior 
extremity on each side (behind the grinding teeth) may be cut through 
with bone forceps, or with a guarded bone chisel. (Plate xx, Pig. 8.) 
After the removal of the lower jaw the way will be open to separate 
the head from the neck, the knife being used to cut into the first or 
second joint from below, or the bone forceps or chisel being employed 
to cut through the bones of the neck. Then traction is made on the 
head by means of hooks in the orbits, and the hand, armed with an 
embryotomy knife, is introduced to cut through the tense resisting 
ligament and muscles above the bones. The skin and the strong liga- 
mentous cord attached to the poll are the essential things to cut, as the 
muscles can easily be torn across. Unless there are great difficulties 
in the way it is well to skin the head from the eyes back, and on reach- 
ing the poll to cut through the ligament and then bring the head away 
by pulling. 

If it is decided to remove the entire head at once, it may be skinned 
from the front of the eyes back to behind the lower jaw below and the 
poll above, then cut through the muscles and ligaments around the 
first joint and pull the head away, assisting, if need be in the separa^ 
tion of the head, by using the knife on the ligament of the joint. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 225 

If tlie calf is a double-headed monster the skinning of the head must 
be carried backward until the point has been reached where both heads 
branch from the single neck, and the separation must be made at that 
point. The muscles and ligaments are first to be cut through, and if 
the part cannot then be detached by pulling, the bodies of the vertebrae 
may be separated by passing the knife through the joint. The second 
head may now be secured by a noose round the lower jaw or hooks in 
the orbits and brought up into place, the body being pushed back toward 
the other side by a repeller so as to make room. 

It should be added that, excepting in the case of a double-headed 
monster, or in case of the head protruding or nearly so, and one or both 
fore limbs presenting, it is rarely desirable to undertake amputation of 
the head. The space desirable in the passages can usually be secured 
by the much simpler and easier procedure of removing one or both fore 
limbs. 

AMPUTATION OF THE HIND LIMBS. 

This is sometimes demanded on the one extended limb when the other 
can not be brought up and delivery can not be effected ; also in case of 
monsters having extra hind limbs ; in cases where the calf is dead, 
putrid, and bloated with gas, and in some cases of breech presentation 
as described under that head. 

When the limb is extended the guiding principles are as in the case 
of the fore limbs. The skin is cut through circularly above the fetlock 
and slit up beneath the pelvic bones on the inner side of the thigh. It 
is then dissected from the other parts as high as it has been slit on the 
inner side and to above the prominence (trochanter major) on the upper 
end of the thigh bone on the outer side of the joint. In this procedure 
the hands and spud can do much, but owing to the firmer connections 
the knife will be more frequently required than in the case of the fore 
limb. The muscles are now cut through all around the hip joint and 
strong traction is made by two or three men on the limb. If there is 
still too much resistance a knife is inserted into the joint on the inner 
side and its round ligament cut through, after which extraction will be 
comparatively easy. This ■ accomplished, it will often be possible to 
extract the fetus with the other leg turned forward into the womb. If 
the calf is bloated with gas it may be necessary to remove the other 
leg in the same way, and even to cut open the chest and abdomen and 
remove their contents before extraction can be effected. In the case of 
extra limbs it may be possible to bring them up into the passages after 
the presenting hind limbs have been removed. If this is not practi- 
cable they may be detached by cutting them through at the hip joint 
as described under Breech Presentation. 

Another method of removing the hind limb is, after having skinned it 
over the quarter, to cut through the pelvic bones from before backward, 
in the median line below, by knife, saw, or long embryotome (Plate 
24697 15 



226 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

xx, Fig. 1), and then disjoint the bones of the spine (sacrum) and the hip 
bone (ilium) on that side with einbryotome, knife, or saw, and then 
drag away the entire limb, along with all the hip bones on that side. 
This has the advantage of securing more room and thereby facilitating 
subsequent operations. Both limbs may be removed in this way, but 
on the removal of the second the operator is without any solid point to 
drag upon in bringing away the remainder of the fetus. 

DIVISION ACROSS THE MIDDLE OF THE BODY. 

In cases of extra size, monstrosity, or distortion of one end of the body, 
it may be requisite to cut the body in two and return the half from the 
passages into the womb, even after one half has been born. The pre- 
senting members are dragged upon forcibly by assistants to bring as 
much of the body as possible outside. Then cut through the skin 
around the body at some distance from the vulva, and with hand, knife, 
and spud detach it from the trunk as far back into the passages as can 
be reached. Next cut across the body at the point reached, beginning 
at the lower part (breast, belly) and proceeding up toward the spine. 
This greatly favors the separation of the backbone when reached, and 
further allows of its being extended so that it can be divided higher up. 
When the backbone is reached, the knife is passed between the two 
bones, the prominent ridges across their ends acting as guides, and by 
dragging and twisting the one is easily detached from the other. With 
an anterior presentation the separation should, if possible, be made 
behind the last rib, while with a posterior presentation as many of the 
ribs should be brought away as can be accomplished. Having removed 
one half of the body, the remaining half is to be pushed back into the 
womb, the feet sought and secured with nooses, and the second half 
removed in one piece, if possible, and, if not, then after the removal of 
the extra limb or other cause of obstruction. 

REMOVAL OF THE CONTENTS OF CHEST OR ABDOMEN. 

If the body of the calf sticks fast in the passages by reason of the 
mere dryness of its skin and of the passages, the obstacle may be 
removed by injecting sweet oil past the fetus into the womb through a 
rubber or other tube, and smearing the passages freely with lard. 
When the obstruction depends on excess of size of the chest or abdo- 
men, or thickening of the body from distorted spine, much advantage 
may be derived from the removal of the contents of these great cavities 
of the trunk. We have already seen how the haunches may be nar- 
rowed by cutting the bones apart in the median line below and causing 
their free edges to overlap each other. The abdomen can be cut open 
by the embryotomy knife or the long einbryotome in the median line, 
or at any point, and the contents pulled out with the hand, the knife 
being used in any case when especial resistance is encountered. If the 
abdomen ij so firmly impacted that it can not be dealt with in this way, 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 227 

one hind limb and the hip bone on the same side may be removed as 
described under Amputation of the Hind Limbs. This will allow the 
introduction of the hand into the abdomen from behind, so as to pull out 
the contents. By introducing an embryotomy knife in the palm of the 
hand and cutting through the muscle of the diaphragm the interior of 
the chest can be reached in the same way and the heart and lungs 
removed. 

When, in dealing with an anterior presentation, it becomes necessary 
to remove the contents of the chest, the usual course is to cut through 
the connections of the ribs with the breastbone (the costal cartilages) 
close to the breastbone on each side, and from the abdomen forward to 
the neck. Then cut through the muscles connecting the front of the 
breastbone with the neck, and its hinder end with the belly, and pull 
out the entire breastbone. Having torn out the heart and lungs with 
the hand, make the rib cartilages on the one side overlap those on the 
other, so as to lessen the thickness of the chest, and proceed to extract 
the body. If it seems needful to empty the abdomen as well, it is easy 
to reach it by cutting through the diaphragm, which separates it from 
the chest. 

DELIVERY THROUGH THE FLANK — CESAREAN SECTION — LAPA- 
ROTOMY. 

This is sometimes demanded, when the distortion and narrowing of the 
hip bones are such as to forbid the passage of the calf, or when inflam- 
mation has practically closed the natural passages and the progeny is 
more valuable and worthy of being saved than the dam; also in cases 
in which the cow has been fatally injured, or is ill beyond possibility of 
recovery and yet carries a living calf. It is too often a last resort after 
long and fruitless efforts to deliver by the natural channels, and in such 
cases the saving of the calf is all that can be expected, the exhausted 
cow, already the subject of active inflammation, and too often also of 
putrid poisoning, is virtually beyond hope. The hope of saving the 
dam is greatest if she is in good health and not fatigued, in cases, for 
example, in which the operation is resorted to on account of broken hip 
bones or abnormally narrow passages. 

The stock-owner will not attempt such a serious operation as this. 
Yet, where the mother has just died or is to be immediately sacrificed, no 
one should hesitate at resorting to it in order to save the calf. If alive 
it is important to have the cow perfectly still. Her left fore leg being 
bent at the knee by one person, another may seize the left horn and nose 
and turn the head to the right until the nose rests on the spine just 
above the shoulder. The cow will sink down gently on her left side 
without shock or struggle. One may now hold the head firmly to the 
ground, while a second, carrying the end of the tail from behind for- 
ward on the inside of the right thigh, pulls upon it so as to keep the 
right hind limb well raised from the ground. If time presses she may 



228 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

be operated on in this position, or if the cow is to be sacrificed a blow 
on the head with an ax will secure quietude. Then the prompt cutting 
into the abdomen and womb and the extraction of the calf requires no 
skill. If, however, the cow is to be preserved, her two fore feet and the 
lower hind one should be safely fastened together and the upper hind 
one drawn back. Two ounces chloral hydrate, given by injection, 
should induce sleep in twenty minutes, and the operation may proceed. 
In case the cow is to be preserved, wash the right flank and apply a 
solution of 4 grains of corrosive sublimate in a pint of water. Then, 
with an ordinary scalpel or knife dipped in the above solution, make an 
incision from 2 inches below and in front of the outer angle of the 
hip bone in a direction downward and slightly forward to a distance of 
12 inches. Cut through the muscles, and more carefully through the 
transparent lining membrane of the abdomen (peritoneum), letting the 
point of the knife lie in the groove between the first two fingers of the 
left hand as they are slid down inside the membrane and with their 
back to the intestines. An assistant, whose hands, like those of the 
operator, have been dipped in the sublimate solution, may press his 
hands on the wound behind the knife to prevent the protrusion of the 
intestines. The operator now feels for and brings up to the wound the 
gravid womb, allowing it to bulge well through the abdominal wound, 
so as to keep back the bowels and prevent any escape of water into the 
abdomen. This is seconded by two assistants, who press the lips of 
the wound against the womb. Then an incision 12 inches long is made 
into the womb at its most prominent point, deep enough to penetrate 
its walls, but not so as to cut into the water bags. In cutting, care- 
fully avoid the cotyledons, which may be felt as hard masses inside. 
By pressure the latter may be made to bulge out as in natural parturi- 
tion, and this projecting portion may be torn or cut so as to let the 
liquid flow down outside of the belly. The operator now plunges his 
hand into the womb, seizes the fore or hind limbs, and quickly extracts 
the calf and gives it to an attendant to convey to a safe place. The 
womb may be drawn out, but not until all the liquid has flowed out, and 
the fetal membranes must be separated from the natural cotyledons, 
one by one, and the membranes removed. The womb is now emptied 
with a sponge, which has been boiled or squeezed out of a sublimate 
solution, and if any liquid has fallen into the abdomen it may be 
removed in the same way. A few stitches are now placed in the wound 
in the womb, using carbolized catgut. They need not be very close 
together, as the wound will diminish greatly when the womb contracts. 
Should the womb not contract at once it may have applied against it a 
sponge squeezed out of a cold sublimate solution, or it may be drawn 
out of the abdominal wound and exposed to the cold air until it con- 
tracts. Its contraction is necessary to prevent bleeding from its enor- 
mous network of veins. When contracted the womb is returned into 
the abdomen and the abdominal wound sewed u.]). One set of stitches, 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 229 

to be placed at intervals of 2 inches, are passed through the entire 
thickness of skin and muscles and tied around two quills or little rollers 
resting on the skin. (Plate xxvm, Fig. 7.) These should be of silver, 
and may be cut at one end and pulled out after the wound has healed. 
The superficial stitches are put in every half inch and passed through 
the skin only. They, too, may be of silver; or pins maybe inserted 
through the lips and a fine cord twisted round their ends like a figure 
eight. (Plate xxvm, 9.) The points of the pins may be snipped off 
with pliers. The edges may be still further held together by the appli- 
cation of Venice turpentine, melted so as to become firmly adherent, 
and covered with a layer of cotton wool. Then the whole should be 
supported by a bandage fixed around the loins and abdomen. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
Plate XII: 

Fetus with its membranes at mid term. The uterus is opened on the left side. 
In the uterus the fetus is surrounded by several membranes, which are known 
as the amnion or inner layer, the allantois or central layer, and the chorion 
or outer layer. The amnion or inner membrane is nearest the fetus, and 
forms a closed sac around it, filled with a fluid known as liquor amnii, in 
which the fetus floats. 

The allantois is the central membrane, and is composed of two layers which form 
a closed sac in connection with the urachus or the tube which extends from 
the fetal bladder through the umbilical cord. The one layer of the allan- 
tois is spread over the outer surface of the amnion, and the other over the 
inner surface of chorion. The allantois also contains a fluid which is known 
as the allantoic liquid. 

The chorion is the outer envelope or membrane of the fetus, completely inclos- 
ing the fetus with its other membranes. On the outer surface of this mem- 
brane are found the fetal placentulse or cotyledons, which, through their 
attachment to the maternal cotyledons, furnish the fetus with the means of 
sustaining life. The relation of the fetal and maternal cotyledons to each 
other is illustrated on the following plate. 
Plate XIII: 

Fig. 1. Uterus of the cow during pregnancy, laid open to show the cotyledons 
(d) on the internal surface of uterus (c). The ovary (a) is shown cut across, 
and the two halves laid open to show the position of the discharged ovum 
at a'. 

Fig. 2. Illustrates the relation of the fetal and maternal parts of a cotyledon. 
A portion of the uterus (A) is shown with the maternal cotyledon (BB) 
attached to it. The fetal portion (Z>) consists of a mass of very minute 
hairlike processes on the chorion (E), which fit into corresponding depres- 
sions or pits of the maternal portion. Each portion is abundantly supplied 
with blood vessels, so that a ready interchange of nutritive fluid may take 
place between mother and fetus. 
Plate XIV : 

Fig. 1. Taken from Fiirstenberg-Leisering, Anatomic und Pliysiologie des Bindes. 
Fetal calf with a portion of the wall of the abdominal cavity of the right 
side and the stomach and intestines removed to illustrate the nature of the 
umbilical or navel cord. It consists of a hollow tube (1-1') into which pass 
the two umbilical arteries (3) carrying blood to the placenta in the uterus 
or womb and the umbilical vein (4) bringing the blood back and carrying 
it into the liver. The cord also contains the urachus (2'), which carries 
urine from the bladder (2) through the cord. These vessels are all oblit- 
erated at birth. 5, liver; 5', lobe of same known as the lobus Spiegelii; o", 
gall bladder; 6, right kidney; 6', left kidney; 6", ureters, or the tubes con- 
ducting the urine from the kidneys to the bladder; 7, rectum where it has 
been severed in removing the intestines ; 8, uterus of the fetus, cut off at 
the anterior extremity ; 9, aorta ; 10, posterior vena cava. 
230 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 231 

Plate XIV — Continued. 

Fig. 2. Taken from Quain's Anatomy, Vol. n, showing the bloodvessels passing 
through the umbilical cord in a human fetus: L, liver; K, kidney; I, intes- 
tine ; U C, umbilical cord ; Ua, umbilical arteries. The posterior aorta 
comiug from the heart passes backward and gives rise to the internal iliac 
arteries, and of these the umbilical arteries are branches. Uv, umbilical 
vein; this joins the portal vein; passes onward to the liver, breaks up into 
smaller vessels which reunite in the hepatic vein ; this empties into the pos- 
terior vena cava, which carries the blood back to the heart. 
Plat e XV : 

Showing the most favorable position of the calf or fetus in the womb at birth, 
and the position in which it is most frequently found. This is known as the 
normal anterior position. The back of the fetus is directly towards that of 
the mother, the fore legs are extended back towards the vulva of the 
mother, and the head rests between them. The birth of the calf in this posi- 
tion usually takes place without artificial assistance. 
Plate XVI : 

Fig. 1. Anterior presentation ; one fore limb completely retained. From Flem- 
ing's Veterinary Obstetrics. The retained limb must be reached if possible, 
and brought forward joint by joint and the fetus then extracted. 

Fig. 2. Anterior presentation ; fore limbs bent at knee. From Fleming's Veter- 
inary Obstetrics. The limbs must be extended before delivery can be accom- 
plished. 

Fig. 3. Anterior presentation ; fore limb crossed over neck. From Fleming's 
Veterinary Obstetrics. The leg should be grasped a little above the fet- 
lock, raised, drawn to its proper side, and extended in the genital canal. 

Fig. 4. Anterior presentation ; downward deviation of head. After St. Cyr, from 
Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery. The head must be brought into posi- 
tion seen in Plate XV before delivery can take place. 

Fig. 5. Anterior presentation; deviation of the head upwards and backwards. 
From Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics. Retropulsion is the first indication, 
and will often bring the head into its normal position. 

Fig. 6. Anterior presentation; head presenting with back down. From D'Ar- 
boval, Diet, de Med. et de Chir. The fetus should be turned by pushing 
back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior pre- 
sentation. 
Plate XVII: 

Fig. 1. Anterior presentation, with hind feet engaged in pelvis. A very serious 
malpresentation, in which it is generally impossible to save the fetus if 
delivery is far advanced. The indications are to force back the hind feet. 

Fig. 2. Thigh and croup presentation, showing the fetus corded. From Flem- 
ing's Veterinary Obstetrics. The cord has a ring or noose at one end. The 
two ends of the cord are passed between the thighs, brought out at the flanks, 
and the plain end passed through the noose at the top of the back and brought 
outside the vulva. The fetus must be pushed back and an attempt made 
to bring the limbs properly into the genital passage. 

Fig. 3. Croup and hock presentation. From Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics. 
The indications in this abnormal presentation are the same as described for 
Fig. 2. 

Fig. 4. Posterior presentation ; the fetus on its back. From D'Arboval, Diet, de 
Med. et de Chir. Turn the fetus so at so make a normal anterior presentation. 

Fig. 5. Stemo-abdominal presentation. From D'Arboval, Diet, de Med. et de 
Chir. The fetus is on its side with limbs crossing and presenting. The 
limbs least eligible for extraction should be forced back into the uterus. 

Fig. 6. Dorso-lumbar presentation ; the back presenting. From D'Arboval, Diet, 
de Med. et de Chir. The fetus must be turned so that one or the other ex- 
tremity can enter the passage. 



232 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Plate XVIII: 

Fig. 1. Twin pregnancy, showing the normal anterior and posterior presenta- 
tions. From Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics. 

Fig. 2. Abdominal dropsy of the fetus ; normal presentation ; fore limbs corded. 
After Armatage. The drawing illustrates the method of puncturing the 
abdomen through the chest with a long trocar and canula, The fluid is 
represented escaping from the canula after the withdrawal of the trocar. 

Fig. 3. Tallich's short, bent, crotchet forceps. The forceps have bent and toothed 
jaws, which are intended to take hold of the fetus where neither cords or 
hooks can be applied, as the ear, nose, or skin of cheek. 

Fig. 4. Clamp for ear, skin, etc : 1-1, blades with hooks and corresponding holes ; 
2, ring to close the blades; 3, stem with female screw for handle; 4, handle, 
which may be either straight or jointed and flexible. 
Plate XIX : 

This plate illustrates various malformations and diseases of the fetus which act 
as the cause of difficult parturition. 

Figs. 1, 2, 3. Represent the fetuses with portions of their bodies double. Fig. 
1 (from Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics), double head, neck, and fore limbs. 
Fig. 2 (from Encyclop. der Gesam. Thierheilkunde, 1886), double head, neck, 
fore limbs, and body. Fig. 3 (from Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics), double 
faced. 

Fig. 4. Fetus with head very much enlarged. From Fleming's Veterinary 
Obstetrics. This affection is known as hydrocephalus or dropsy of the 
brain, and is due to a more or less considerable quantity of fluid in the cra- 
nial cavity of the fetus. 

Fig. 5. Skull of the calf represented in Fig. 4. The roof of the skull is absent. 
From Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics. 
Plate XX: 

Fig. 1. Long embryotome with joint. 

Fig. 2. Long sharp hook. This instrument is about 3 feet in length, including 
the handle. Hooks of this kind, both blunt and sharp, are applied directly 
to the fetus to assist in delivery. 

Fig. 3. Giinther's long-handled embryotome. This instrument and that repre- 
sented in Fig. 1 are of special value in cutting through muscular tissue and 
in separating the limbs from the trunk when the fetus can not be removed 
entire. These embryotomes are usually 30 inches long, but may be made 
either longer or shorter. 

Fig. 4. Jointed cord-carrier, used in difficult parturition to carry a cord into 
regions which can not be reached by the arm. 

Fig. 5. Instrument used to rotate or turn the fetus, known as a rotator. 

Fig. 6. Dilator of the neck of the womb, used when conception can not take 
place owing to a contracted condition of the neck of the womb. 

Fig. 7. Repeller. An instrument from 2 to 3 feet long, used to force the fetus 
forward into the womb. This operation is generally necessary when the 
presentation is abnormal and the fetus has advanced too far into the narrow 
inlet to the uterus to be moved. 

Fig. 8. Cartwright's bone chisel. Including the handle this instrument is about 
32 inches in length, the chisel portion is a little more than 2 inches long and 
1 to 1$ broad. Only the middle portion is sharp, the projecting corners are 
blunt and the sides rounded. This instrument is used for slitting up the 
skin of a limb and as a bone chisel when it is necessary to mutilate the fetus 
in order to effect delivery. 
Plate XXI : 

Fig. 1. Embryotome, an instrument used when it is necessary to reduce the size 
of the fetus by cutting away certain parts before birth can be affected. This 
instrument may be long or short, straight or curved. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 233 

Plate XXI — Continued. 

Fig. 2. Also an embryotome. The blade can be made to slide out of or into tbe 

handle. The instrument can thus be introduced into or withdrawn from the 

genital passage without risk of injury to the mother. 
Fig. 3. Schaack's traction cord. This is merely a cord with a running noose at 

one end and a piece of wood at the other, to offer a better hold for the hand. 
Figs, ia and ib. Reuff's head collar for securing the head of the fetus. 
Fig. 5. Curved cord-carrier, used in difficult parturition to carry a cord into 

regions which can not be reached by the arm. 
Fig. 6. Blunt hook, used in difficult parturition. 
Fig. 7. Short hook forceps, used in difficult parturition. 
Fig. 8. Blunt finger hook. 



PLATE JKII 




FOETAL GALF WITHIN ITS MEMBRANES. 



PLATE XII r 




PREGNANT UTERUS WJTH COTYLEDONS. 



PLATE XIV. 




i&£u-?z6*6*d&£ 



VESSELS OF UMBILICAL CORD 



PLATE XVIH. 









PLATE XX. 




Us 



m 



v./ 




. --.J 



* -'>" -• ^—- - -^ ■ ■-■■ r- V . V" ,ffld ■ -..^■^.^ ,.~>,o~^,,~.;~.- ,. . ....-,-., ... :-..■ 



. J . 'lW 



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INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR. 



PLATE XXI. 







SY^T^^gg-reregCTVWn-l 



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8 


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INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR. 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 



By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 



FLOODING — BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB. 

Though not so common in the cow as in the human female, flooding 
is sufficiently frequent to demand attention. It may depend on a too 
rapid calving, and a consequent failure of the womb to contract when 
the calf has been removed. The pregnant womb is extraordinarily rich 
in blood-vessels, and especially in large and tortuous veins, which 
become compressed and all but obliterated under contraction, but remain 
overfilled and often bleed into the cavity of the womb should no con- 
traction take place. Cox records cases in which the labor pains had 
detached and expelled the fetal membranes, while the calf, owing to 
large size or wrong presentation, was detained in the womb, and the 
continued dilatation of the womb in the absence of the fetal membranes 
led to a flow of blood which accumulated in clots around the calf. 
Other causes are laceration of the cotyledons of the womb, or from an 
antecedent inflammation of the placenta, and the unnatural adhesion of 
the membranes to the womb, which bleeds when the two are torn apart. 
Weakness of the womb from overdistension, as in dropsy, twins, etc., is 
not without its influence. Finally, eversion of the womb (casting the 
withers) is an occasional cause of flooding. The trouble is only too evi- 
dent when the blood flows from the external passages in drops or in a 
fine stream. But wheu it is retained in the cavity of the womb it may 
remain unsuspected until it has rendered the animal almost bloodless. 
The symptoms in such a case are paleness of the eyes, nose, mouth, and 
of the lips of the vulva, a weak rapid pulse, violent and perhaps loud 
beating of the heart (palpitations), sunken, staring eyes, coldness of the 
skin, ears, horns, and limbs, perspiration, weakness in standing, stag- 
gering gait, and finally inability to rise, and death in convulsions. If 
these symptoms are seen the oiled hand should be introduced into the 
womb, which will be found open and flaccid, and containing large blood 
clots. 

Treatment consists in the removal of the fetal membranes and blood 
clots from the womb (which will not contract while they are present), 

235 



236 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the dashing of cold water on the loins, right flank, and vulva, and if 
these measures fail, the injection of cold water into the womb through 
a rubber tube furnished with a funnel. In obstinate cases a good- 
sized sponge soaked in tincture of muriate of iron should be introduced 
into the womb and firmly squeezed, so as to bring the iron in contact 
with the bleeding surface. This is at once an astringent and a coagu- 
lant for the blood, besides stimulating the womb to contraction. In 
the absence of this agent, astringents (solution of copperas, alum, 
tannic acid, or acetate of lead), may be thrown into the womb, and one- 
half-dram doses of acetate of lead may be given by the mouth, or 1 
ounce powdered ergot of rye may be given in gruel. When nothing 
else is at hand, an injection of oil of turpentine will sometimes promptly 
check the bleeding. 

EVERSION OF THE WOMB — CASTING THE WITHERS. 

Like flooding, this is the result of failure of the womb to contract 
after calving. If that organ contracts naturally, the afterbirth is 
expelled, the internal cavity of the womb is nearly closed, and the 
mouth of the organ becomes so narrow that the hand can not be forced 
through, much less the whole mass of the matrix. When, however, it 
fails to contract, the closed end of one of the horns may fall into its open 
internal cavity, and under the compression of the adjacent intestines, 
and the straining and contraction of the abdominal walls, it is forced far- 
ther and farther until the whole organ is turned outside in, slides back 
through the vagina, and hangs from the vulva. The womb can be 
instantly distinguished from the protruding vagina or bladder by the 
presence over its whole surface of 50 to 100 mushroom-like bodies 
(cotyledons), each 2 to 3 inches in diameter, and attached by a narrow 
neck. (Plates xn, xiii.) When fully everted it is further recognizable 
by a large, undivided body hanging from the vulva, and two horns or 
divisions which hang down toward the hocks. In the imperfect ever- 
sions the body of the womb may be present with two depressions lead- 
ing into the two horns. In the cases of some standing the organ has 
become inflamed and gorged with blood until it is as large as a bushel 
basket, and its surface lias a dark, red, blood-like hue, and tears and 
bleeds on the slightest touch. Still later lacerations, raw sores, and 
even gangrene are shown in the mass. At the moment of protrusion 
the general health is not altered, but soon the inflammation and fever 
with the violent and continued straining induce exhaustion, and the cow 
lies down, making no attempt to rise. 

Treatment will vary somewhat, according to the degree of the ever- 
sion. In partial e version, with the womb protruding only slightly from 
the vulva and the cow standing, let an assistant pinch the back to 
prevent straining while the operator pushes his closed fist into the cen- 
ter of the mass and carries it back through the vagina, assisting in 
returning the surrounding parts by the other hand. In more complete 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 237 

eversion, but with the womb as yet of its natural bulk and consistency, 
and the cow standing, straining being checked by pinching the back, a 
sheet is held by two men so as to sustain the everted womb and raise 
it to the level of the vulva. It is now sponged clean with cold water, the 
cold being useful in driving out the blood and reducing the bulk, and 
finally it may be sponged over with laudanum or with a weak solution 
of carbolic acid (1 dram to 1 quart water). The closed fist may now be 
planted in the rounded end of the largest horn and pushed on so as to 
turn it back within itself and carry it on through the vagina, the other 
hand being used meanwhile to assist in the inversion and in pushing 
the different masses in succession within the lips of the vulva. In case 
of failure, resort should be had at once to a plan which I have success- 
fully followed for many years, but which has never been described save 
by a short notice in my "Farmers' Veterinary Adviser," eighth edition. 
Take a long linen or cotton bandage, 5 or 6 inches wide, and wind it 
around the protruding womb as tightly as it can be drawn, beginning 
at the free end and gradually covering the entire mass up to the vulva. 
By this means the greater part of the blood will be forced out of the 
organ and its bulk greatly reduced, so that its reduction is much facil- 
itated. An additional advantage is found in the protection given to 
the womb by its investing bandage, while it is being pushed forward 
into the vagina and abdomen. In manipulating the exposed womb 
there is always danger of laceration, but when the organ is covered 
with a sheet it is next to impossible to tear it. The subsequent ma- 
nipulation is as in the other case by pushing the blind end forward 
within itself with the closed fist and carrying this on through the vagina 
into the abdomen with the constant assistance of the other hand. It 
will often be found convenient to use the edge of the left hand to push 
the outer part of the protruding mass inside the lips of the vulva, while 
the right hand and arm are carrying the central portions forward 
through the vagina. An intelligent assistant, pushing with the palms 
of both hands on the outer portion of the mass, will also afford material 
assistance. As the womb is turned within itself the wrapping band- 
age will gradually loosen, but once the great mass has entered the 
passages it is easy to compel the rest to follow, and the compression by 
the bandage is no longer so important. When the womb is fully re- 
placed the bandage is left in its interior in a series of loose folds, and 
can be easily withdrawn. It is well to move the hand from side to 
side to insure that the two horns of the womb are fully extended and 
on about the same level before withdrawing the arm and applying a 
truss. 

When the womb has been long everted and is gorged with blood, 
inflamed and friable, there is often the additional disadvantage that the 
animal is unable or unwilling to rise. When lying down the straining 
can not be controlled so effectually, and the compression of the belly 
is so great as to prove a serious obstacle to reduction, even in the 



238 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

absence of straining. The straining may be checked by 2 or 3 ounces 
of laudanum, or 2 ounces of choral hydrate, or by inhalation of chloro- 
form to insensibility, and then by raising the hind parts on straw bun- 
dles the gravitation of the abdominal organs forward may be made to 
lessen the resistance. If success can not be had in this way the cow 
may be further turned on her back, and if return is still impossible, the 
hind limbs may be tied together and drawn up to a beam overhead by 
the aid of a pulley. In this position, in place of the pressure backward 
of the bowels proving a hindrance, their gravitation forward proves a 
most material help to reduction. In seeking to return the womb the 
sponging with ice-cold water, the raising on a sheet and the wrapping 
in a tight bandage should be resorted to. Another method which is 
especially commendable in these inflamed conditions of the womb is to 
bring a piece of linen sheet 30 inches by 36 under the womb with its 
anterior border close up to the vulva, then turn the posterior border 
upward and forward over the organ, and cross the two ends over this, 
and over each other above. The ends of the sheet are steadily drawn 
so as to tighten its hold on the womb, which is thus held on the level 
of the vulva or above, and cold water is constantly poured upon the 
mass. The reduction is further sought by compression of the mass 
with the palms applied outside the sheet. Fifteen or twenty minutes 
are usually sufficient to cause the return of the womb, provided strain- 
ing is prevented by pinching of the back or otherwise. 

In old and aggravated cases, with the womb torn, bruised, or even 
gangrenous, the only resort is to amputate the entire mass. This is 
done by tying a strong waxed cord round the protruding mass close up 
to the vulva, winding the cord round pieces of wood so as to draw them 
as tightly as possible, cutting off the organ below this ligature, tying a 
thread on any artery that may still bleed, and returniug the stump well 
into the vagina. 

Uetention^ of the returned womb is the next point, and this is most 
easily accomplished by a rope truss. Take two ropes, each about 18 
feet long and an inch in thickness. Double each rope at its middle, 
and lay the one above the other at the bend so as to form an ovoid of 
about 8 inches in its long diameter. Twist each end of the one rope 
twice round the other so that this ovoid will remain when they are 
drawn tight. (Plates xxn and xxm.) Tie a strap or rope around the 
back part of the neck and a surcingle around the body. Place the rope 
truss on the animal so that the ovoid ring shall surround the vulva, 
the two ascending ropes on the right and left of the tail and the two 
descending ones down inside the thighs on the right and left of the 
udder. These descending ropes are carried forward on the sides of the 
body and tied to the surcingle and to the neck collar. The ascending- 
ropes proceed forward on the middle of the back, twisting over each 
other, and are tied to the surcingle and collar. The upper and lower 
ropes are drawn so tightly that the rope ring is made to press firmly 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 239 

all around the vulva without risk of displacement. This should be worn 
for several days until the womb shall have closed, and all risk of further 
eversion is at an end. Variations of this device are found in the use 
of a narrow triangle of iron applied around the vulva and fixed by a 
similar arrangement of ropes, surcingle, and collar (Plate xxin, Fig. 3), 
a common crupper similarly held around the vulva (Plate xxn, Fig. 1), 
stitches through the vulva, and wires inserted through the skin on the 
two hips (Plate xxin, Fig. 2), so that they will cross behind the vulva; 
also pessaries of various kinds inserted in the vagina. None of these, 
however, presents any advantage over the simple and comparatively 
painless roj)e truss described above. Such additional precautions as 
keeping the cow in a stall higher behind than in front, and seeing that 
the diet is slightly laxative and nonstimulating may be named. If 
straining is persistent, ounce doses of laudanum may be employed twice 
a day, and the same may be injected into the vagina. 

If the womb has been cut off, injections of a solution of a teaspoon- 
ful of carbolic acid in a quart of water should be employed daily, or 
more frequently, until the discharge ceases. 

EVERSION OF THE BLADDER. 

A genuine eversion of the bladder is almost unknown in the cow, 
owing to the extreme narrowness of its mouth. The protrusion of the 
bladder, however, through a laceration in the floor of the vagina sus- 
tained in calving, and its subsequent protrusion through the vulva, is 
sometimes met with. In this case the protruding bladder contains 
urine, which can never be the case in a real eversion, in which the inner 
surface of the bladder and the openings of the ureters are both exposed 
outside the vulva. The presence of a bag containing water, which is 
connected with the floor of the vagina, will serve to identify this con- 
dition. If the position of the bladder in the vulva renders it imprac- 
ticable to pass a catheter to draw off the urine, pierce the organ with 
the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe, or even a very small trocar and 
canula, and draw off the water, when it will be found an easy matter 
to return the bladder to its place. The rent in the vagina can be 
stitched up, but as there would be risk in any subsequent calving it is 
best to prepare the cow for the butcher. 

RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER. 

This has been known to occur in protracted parturition when the 
fetus finally passed while the bladder was full. The symptoms are 
those of complete suppression of urine and tenderness of the abdomen, 
with a steady accumulation of liquid and fluctuation on handling its 
lower part. If the hand is introduced into the vagina it is felt to be 
hot and tender, and perhaps slightly swollen along its floor. As a 
final test, if the lower fluctuating part of the abdomen is punctured 



240 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

with a hypodermic needle a straw-colored liquid of an urinous odor 
flows out. The condition has been considered as past hope. The only 
chance for recovery would be in opening the abdomen, evacuating the 
liquid, and stitching up the rent in the bladder, but at such a season 
and with inflammation already started there would be little to hope for. 

RUPTURE OF THE WOMB. 

When the womb has been rendered friable by disease this may occur 
in the course of the labor, but much more frequently it occurs from vio- 
lence sustained in attempting assistance in difficult parturition. It is 
also liable to occur during e version of the organ through efforts to 
replace it. 

If it happens while the calf is still in the womb, it will usually bleed 
freely and continuously until the fetus has been extracted, so that the 
womb can contract on itself and expel its excess of blood. Another 
danger is that in case of a large rent the calf may escape into the cav- 
ity of the abdomen and parturition become impossible. Still another 
danger is that of the introduction of septic germs and the setting up of 
a fatal inflammation of the lining membrane of the belly (peritoneum). 
Still another is the escaj>e of the small intestine through the rent and 
on through the vagina and vulva, so as to protrude externally and 
receive perhaps fatal injuries. In case of rupture before calving, that 
act should be completed as rapidly and carefully as possible, the fetal 
membranes removed and the contraction of the womb sought by dash- 
ing cold water on the loins, the right flank, or the vulva. If the calf 
has escaped into the abdomen and can not be brought through the 
natural channels it may be permissible to fix the animal and extract 
it through the side, as in the Caesarian section. If the laceration has 
happened during eversion of the womb it is usually less redoubtable, 
because the womb contracts more readily under the stimulus of the 
cold air so recently applied. In case the abdomen has been laid open 
it is well to stitch up the rent, but if not it should be left to nature, and 
will often heal satisfactorily, the cow even breeding successfully in after 
years. 

LACERATIONS AND RUPTURES OF THE VAGLNA. 

Eupture of the floor of the vagina has been already referred to as 
allowing the protrusion of the bladder. Laceration of the roof of this 
passage is also met with as the result of deviations of the hind limbs 
and feet upward when the calf lies on its back. In some such cases the 
opening passes clear into the rectum, or the foot may even pass out 
through the anus, so that that opening and the vulva are laid open into 
one. 

Simple superficial lacerations of the vaginal walls are not usually 
serious, and heal readily unless septic inflammation sets in, in which 
case the cow is likely to perish. They may be treated with soothing 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 241 

and antiseptic injections, such as carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1 
quart. 

The more serious injuries depend on the complications. Rupture ot 
the anterior part of the canal, close to the mouth of the womb, may 
lead to the introduction of infecting germs into the cavity of the abdo- 
men, or protrusion of the bowel through the rent and externally, either 
of which is likely to prove fatal. If both these conditions are escaped 
the wound may heal spontaneously. Eupture into the bladder may 
lead to nothing worse than a constant dribbling of urine from the vulva. 
The cow should be fattened if she survives. Eupture into the rectum 
will entail a constant escape of feces through the vulva, and of course 
the same condition exists when the anus as well has been torn open. I 
have successfully sewed up an opening of this kind in the mare, but in 
the cow it is probably better to prepare for the butcher. 

CLOTS OF BLOOD IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. 

During calving the vagina may be bruised so as to cause escape of 
blood beneath the mucous membrane and its coagulation into large 
bulging clots. The vulva may appear swollen, and on separating its 
lips the mucous membrane of the vagina is seen to be raised into irreg- 
ular rounded swellings of a dark blue or black color, and which pit on 
pressure of the finger. If the accumulation of blood is not extensive it 
may be reabsorbed, but if abundant it may lead to irritation and dan- 
gerous inflammation, and should be incised with a lancet and the clots 
cleared out. The wounds may then be sponged twice a day with a 
lotion made with 1 dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram carbolic acid, and 1 
quart water. 

RETAINED AFTERBIRTH. 

The cow, of all our domestic animals, is especially subject to this acci- 
dent. This may be partly accounted for by the firm connections estab- 
lished through the fifty to one hundred cotyledons (Plate xni, Fig. 2) 
in which the fetal membranes dovetail with the follicles of the womb. 
It is also most liable to occur after abortion, in which preparation has 
not been made by fatty degeneration for the severance of these close 
connections. In the occurrence of inflammation, causing the formation 
of new tissue between the membranes and the womb, we find the occa- 
sion of unnaturally firm adhesions which prevent the spontaneous 
detachment of the membranes. Again, in low conditions of health and 
an imperfect power of contraction we find a potent cause of retention, 
the general debility showing particularly in the indisposition of the 
womb to contract, after calving, with sufficient energy to expel the 
afterbirth. Hence we find the condition common with insufficient or 
innutritious food, and in years or localities in which the fodder has 
suffered from weather. Ergoted (Plate v), smutty or musty fodder, by 
causing abortion, is a frequent cause of retention. Old cows are more 
24697 16 



242 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

subject than young ones, probably because, of diminishing vigor. A 
temporary retention is sometimes due to a too rapid closure of the neck 
of the womb after calving, causing strangulation and imprisonment of 
the membranes. Conditions favoring this are the drinking of cold (iced) 
water, the eating of cold food (frosted roots), and (through sympathy 
between udder and womb) a too prompt sucking by the calf or milking 
by the attendant. 

The symptoms of retention of the afterbirth are usually only too evi- 
dent, as the membranes hang from the vulva and rot away gradually, 
causing the most offensive odor throughout the building. When re- 
tained within the womb by closure of its mouth, and similarly in 
cases in which the protruded part has rotted off, the decomposition 
continues and the fetid products escaping by the vulva appear in offen- 
sively smelling pools on the floor and mat together with hairs near the 
root of the tail. The septic materials retained in the womb cause inflam- 
mation of its lining membrane, and this, together with the absorption 
into the blood of the products of putrefaction, leads to ill health, ema- 
ciation, and drying up of the milk. 

Treatment will vary according to the conditions. When the cow is in 
low condition, or when retention is connected with drinking iced water 
or eating frozen food, hot drinks and hot mashes of wheat bran or other 
aliment may be all-sufficient. If, along with the above conditions, the 
bowels are somewhat confined, an ounce of ground ginger, or half an 
ounce of black pepper, given with a quart of sweet oil, or a pound and 
a half of Glauber salts, the latter in at least 4 quarts of warm water, 
will often prove effectual. A bottle or two of flaxseed tea, made by 
prolonged boiling, should also be given at frequent intervals. Other 
stimulants, like rue, savin, laurel, and carminitives like anise, cumin, 
and coriander are preferred by some, but with very questionable reason, 
the more so that the first three are not without danger. Ergot of rye, 
1 ounce, or extract of the same, 1 dram, may be resorted to to induce 
contraction of the womb. The mechanical extraction of the membranes 
is, however, often called for; of this there are several methods. The 
simplest is to hang a weight of 1 or 2 pounds to the hanging por- 
tion, and allow this, by its constant dragging and by its jerking effect 
when the cow moves, to pull the membranes from their attachments 
and to stimulate the womb to expulsive contractions. But in the neg- 
lected cases, when the dependent mass is already badly decomposed, it 
is liable to tear across under the added weight, leaving a portion of the 
offensive material imprisoned in the womb. Again, this uncontrolled 
dragging upon a relaxed womb will (in exceptional cases only, it is 
true) cause it to become everted and to protrude in this condition from 
the vulva. 

A second resort is to seize the dependent part of the afterbirth be- 
tween two sticks, and roll it up on these until they lie against the vulva ; 
then, by careful traction, accompanied by slight jerking movements. 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 243 

from side to side, the womb is stimulated to expulsive contractions and 
the afterbirth is wound up more and more on the sticks until, finally, 
its last connections with the womb are severed and the remainder is 
expelled suddenly en masse. It is quite evident that neglected cases 
with putrid membranes are poor subjects for this method, as the after- 
birth is liable to tear across, leaving- a mass in the womb. Daring the 
progress of the work any indication of tearing is the signal to stop and 
proceed with greater caution, or altogether abandon the attempt in this 
way. 

The third method (that with the skilled hand) is the most promptly 
and certainly successful. For this the operator had best strip and 
dress as for a parturition case. Again, the operation should be under- 
taken within twenty-four hours after calving, since, later, the mouth of 
the womb may be so closed that it becomes difficult to introduce the hand. 
The operator should smear his arms with carbolized lard or vaseline to 
protect them against infection, and particularly in delayed cases with 
putrid membranes. An assistant holds the tail to one side while the 
operator seizes the hanging afterbirth with the left hand, while he 
introduces the right along the right side of the vagina and womb, let- 
ting the membranes slide through his palm until he reaches the first 
cotyledon to which they remain adherent. In case no such connection 
is within reach, gentle traction is made on the membranes with the left 
hand until the deeper parts of the womb are brought within reach, and 
the attachments to the cotyledons can be reached. Then the soft pro- 
jection of the membrane, which is attached to the firm fungus-shaped 
cotyledon on the inner surface of the womb, is seized by the little 
finger, and the other fingers and thumb are closed on it so as to tear it 
out from its connections. To explain this it is only necessary to say 
that the projection from the membrane is covered by soft conical proc- 
esses, which are received into cavities of a corresponding size on the 
summit of the firm mushroom-shaped cotyledon growing from the inner 
surface of the womb. To draw upon the former, therefore, is to extract 
its soft villous processes from within the follicles or cavities of the other. 
(Plate xin, Fig. 2.) If it is at times difficult to start this extraction it 
may be necessary to get the finger nail inserted between the two, and 
once started the finger may be pushed on, lifting all the villi in turn 
out of their cavities. This process of separating ttie cotyledons must be 
carefully conducted, one after another, until the last has been detached 
and the afterbirth comes freely out of the passages. I have never found 
any evil result from the removal of the whole mass at one operation, 
but Shaack mentions the eversion of the womb as the possible result 
of the necessary traction, and in cases in which those in the most dis- 
tant part of the horn of the womb can not be easily reached, he advises 
to attach a cord to the membranes inside the vulva, letting it hang out 
behind, and to cut off the membranes below the cord. Then, after two 
or three days' delay, he extracts the remainder, now softened and easily 



244 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

detached. If carefully conducted, so as not- to tear the cotyledons of 
the womb, the operation is eminently successful; the cow suffers little, 
and the straining roused by the manipulations soon subsides. Keeping 
in a quiet, dark place, or driving a short distance at a walking pace, 
will serve to quiet these. When the membranes have been withdrawn 
the hand, half closed, may be used to draw out of the womb the offensive 
liquid that has collected. If the case is a neglected one, and the dis- 
charge is very offensive, the womb must be injected as for leucorrhoea. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA — VAGINITIS. 

This may occur independently of inflammation of the womb, and usually 
as the result of bruises, lacerations, or other injuries sustained during 
calving. It will be shown by swelling of the lips of the vulva, which, 
together with their lining membrane, become of a dark red or leaden 
hue, and the mucous discharge increases and becomes whitish or pur- 
ulent, and it may be fetid. Slight cases recover spontaneously, or 
under warm fomentations or mild astringent injections (a teaspoonful 
of carbolic acid in a quart of water), but severe cases may go on to the 
formation of large sores (ulcers), or considerable portions of the mucous 
membrane may die and slough off. Baumeister records two cases of 
diphtheritic vaginitis, the second case in a cow four weeks calved, con- 
tracted from the first in a newly calved cow. Both proved fatal, with 
formation of false membranes as far as the interior of the womb. In 
all severe cases the antiseptic injections must be applied most assidu- 
ously. The carbolic acid may be increased to one-half ounce to a quart, 
or chlorine water, or peroxide of hydrogen solution may be injected at 
least three times a day. Hyposulphite of soda, 1 ounce to a quart of 
water, is an excellent application, and the same amount may be given 
by the mouth. 

LEUC0RRHO3A — MUCOPURULENT DISCHARGE FROM THE PASSAGES. 

This is due to a continued or chronic inflammation of the womb, the 
vagina, or both. It usually results from injuries sustained in calving, 
or from irritation by putrid matters in connection with retained after- 
birth, or from the use of some object in the vagina (pessary) to prevent 
eversion of the womb. Exposure to cold or other cause of disturbance 
of the health may affect an organ so susceptible as this at the time of 
parturition so as to cause inflammation. 

The main symptom is the glairy white discharge flowing constantly 
or intermittently (when the cow lies down), soiling the tail and matting 
its hairs and those of the vulva. When the lips of the vulva are drawn 
apart the mucous membrane is seen to be red with minute elevations, 
or pale and smooth. The health may not suffer at first, but if the dis- 
charge continues and is putrid the health fails, the milk shrinks, and 
flesh is lost. If the womb is involved the hand introduced into the 
vagina may detect the mouth of the womb slightly open and tlie liquid 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 245 

collected within its cavity. Examination with the oiled hand in the 
rectum may detect the outline of the womb beneath, somewhat enlarged, 
and fluctuating- under the touch from contained fluid. In some cases 
heat is more frequent or intense than natural, but the animal rarely 
conceives when served, and if she does is likely to abort. 

Treatment with the injections advised for vaginitis is successful in 
mild or recent cases. In obstinate ones stronger solutions may be used 
after the womb has been washed out by a stream of tepid water until 
it comes clear. A rubber tube is inserted into the womb, a funnel 
placed in its raised end, and the water and afterward the solution 
poured slowly through this. If the neck of the womb is so close that 
the liquid can not escape, a second tube may be inserted to drain it off. 
As injections may be used chloride of zinc, one-half dram to the quart of 
water, or sulphate of iron 1 dram to the quart. Three drams of sul- 
phate of iron and one-half ounce ground ginger may also be given in 
the food daily. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB — METRITIS — INFLAMMATION OF WOMB 

AND ABDOMEN — METROPERITONITIS. 

i 

Inflammation of the womb may be slight or violent, simple or asso- 
ciated with putrefaction of its liquid contents and general poisoning, or 
it may extend so that the inflammation affects the lining membrane of 
the whole abdominal cavity. In the last two cases the malady is a very 
grave one. The causes are largely the same as those causing inflam- 
mation of the vagina. Greater importance must, however, be attached 
to exposure to cold and wet, and septic infection. 

The symptoms appear two or three days after calving, when the cow 
may be seen to shiver, or the hair stands erect, especially along the 
spine, and the horns, ears, and limbs are cold. The temperature in the 
rectum is elevated by one or two degrees, the pulse is small, hard, and 
rapid (70 to 100), appetite is lost, rumination ceases, and the milk 
shrinks in quantity or is entirely arrested, and the breathing is hurried. 
The hind limbs may shift uneasily, the tail be twisted, the head and 
eyes turn to the right flank, and the teeth are ground. With the flush 
of heat to the horns and other extremities, there is redness of the eyes, 
nose, and mouth, and usually a dark redness about the vulva. Pressure 
on the right flank gives manifest pain, causing moaning or grunting, 
and the hind limbs are moved stiffly, extremely so if the general lining 
of the abdomen is involved. In severe cases the cow lies down and can 
not be made to rise. There is usually marked thirst, the bowels are 
costive, and dung is passed with pain and effort. The hand inserted 
into the vagina perceives the increased heat, and when the neck of the 
womb is touched the cow winces with pain. Examination through the 
rectum detects enlargement and tenderness of the womb. The discharge 
from the vulva is at first watery, but becomes thick, yellow, and finally 
red or brown, with a heavy or fetid odor. Some cases recover speedily 
and may be almost well in a couple of days; a large proportion perish 



246 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

within two days of the attack, and some merge into the chronic form, 
terminating in leucorrlicea. In the worst cases there is local septic in- 
fection and ulceration, or even gangrene of the parts, or there is gen- 
eral septicaemia, or the inflammation involving the veins of the womb 
causes coagulation of the blood contained in them, and the washing out 
of the clots to the right heart and lungs leads to blocking of the vessels 
in the latter and complicating pneumonia. Inflammations of the womb 
and passages after calving are always liable to these complications, 
and consequently to a fatal issue. Franck records three instances of 
rapidly fatal metritis in cows, all of which had been poisoned from an 
adjacent cow with retained and putrid afterbirth. Others have had 
similar cases. 

Treatment in the slight cases of simple inflammation does not differ 
much from that adopted for vaginitis, only care must be taken that 
the astringent and antiseptic injections are made to penetrate into the 
womb. After having washed out the womb a solution of chloride of 
lime or permanganate of potash (1 ounce to 1 quart of water), with an 
ounce each of glycerine and laudanum to render it more soothing, will 
often answer every purpose. It is usually desirable to open the bowels 
with 1£ pounds Glauber salts and 1 ounce ginger in 4 quarts of warm 
water, and to apply fomentations of warm water or even mustard poul- 
tices or turpentine to the right flank. 

In the violent attacks with high temperature and much prostration, 
besides the salts, agents must be given to lower the temperature and 
counteract septic poisoning. Salicylate of soda one-half ounce, or quinia 
2 drams, repeated every four hours, will help in both ways, or ounce 
doses of hyposulphite of soda or dram doses of carbolic acid may be 
given at equal intervals until six doses have been taken. Tincture of 
aconite has often been used in 20-drop doses every six hours. If the 
temperature rises to 106° or 107° F.,it must be met by the direct appli- 
cation of cold or iced water to* the surface. The animal maybe covered 
with wet sheets, and cold water poured on these at intervals until the 
temperature in the rectum is lowered to 102° F. In summer the cow 
may be allowed to dry spontaneously, while in winter it should be 
rubbed dry and blanketed. Even in the absence of high temperature 
much good may be obtained from the soothing influence of a wet sheet 
covering the loins and flanks and well covered at all points by a dry 
one. This may be followed next day by a free application of mustard 
and oil of turpentine. When the animal shows extreme prostration 
alcohol (1 pint) or carbonate of ammonia (1 ounce) maybe given to tide 
over the danger, but such cases usually perish. 

In this disease, even more than in difficult and protracted parturition 
or retained placenta, the attendants must carefully guard against the 
infection of their hands and arms from the diseased parts. The hand 
and arm before entering the passages should always be well smeared 
with lard impregnated with carbolic acid. 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 247 

MILK FEVER— PARTURITION FEVER — PARTURIENT APOPLEXY — PAR- 
TURIENT COLLAPSE. 

This disease is not only peculiar to the cow, but it may be said to be 
virtually confined to the improved and plethoric cow. It further occurs 
only at or near the time of calving. Indeed, these two factors, calving 
and plethora, may be set apart as preeminently the causes of this dis- 
ease. It is the disease of cows that have been improved in the direc- 
tion of early maturity, power of rapid fattening, or a heavy yield of 
milk, and hence it is characteristic of those having great appetites and 
extraordinary power of digestion. The heavy milking breeds are espe- 
cially its victims, as in these the demand for the daily yield of 50 to 100 
pounds of milk means even more than a daily increase of 2 to 3 pounds of 
body weight, mainly fat. The victims are not always fat when attacked, 
but they are cows having enormous powers of digestion, and which 
have been fed heavily at the time. Hence the stall-fed city dairy cow, 
and the farm cow on a rich clover pasture in June or July, are espe- 
cially subject. The condition of the blood globules in the suffering cow 
attest the extreme richness and density of the blood, yet this peculiar- 
ity appears to have entirely escaped the notice of veterinary writers. 
I have never examined the blood of a victim of this disease without find- 
ing the red blood- globules reduced to little more than one-half their 
usual size. Now, these globules expand or contract according to the 
density of the liquid in which they float. If we dilute the blood with 
water they will expand until they burst, whereas if solids, such as salt 
or albumen, are added they shrink to a large extent. Their small size, 
therefore, in parturition fever indicates the extreme richness of the 
blood, or, in other words, plethora. 

Confinement in the stall is an accessory cause, partly because stabled 
cattle are highly fed, partly because the air is hotter and fouler, and 
partly because there is no expenditure by exercise of the rich products 
of digestion. 

High temperature is conducive to the malady, though the extreme 
colds of winter are no protection against it. Heat, however, conduces 
to fever, and fever means lessened secretion, which means a plethoric 
state of the circulation. The heats of summer are, however, often only 
a coincidence of the real cause, the mature rich pastures and especially 
the clover ones being the greater. 

Electrical disturbances have an influence of a similar kind, disturbing 
the functions of the body, and favoring sudden variations in the circula- 
tion. A succession of cases of the malady often accompany or precede 
a change of weather from dry to wet, from a low to a high barometric 
pressure. 

Gostiveness, which is the usual concomitant of fever, may in a case of 
this kind become an accessory cause, the retention in the blood of what 
should have passed off by the bowels tending to increase the fulness of 
the blood vessels and the density of the blood. 



248 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Mature age is a very strong accessory cause. The disease never 
occurs with the first parturition, and rarely with the second. It appears 
with the third, fourth, fifth, or sixth, after the growth of the cow has 
ceased, and when all her powers are devoted to the production of milk. 

Calving is an essential condition, as the disturbance of the circulation, 
consequent on the contraction of the womb and the expulsion into the 
general circulation of the enormous mass of blood hitherto circulating 
in the walls of the womb, fills to repletion the vessels of the rest of the 
body, and very greatly intensifies the already existing plethora. If 
this is not speedily counterbalanced by a free secretion from the udder, 
kidneys, bowels, and other excretory organs, the most dire results may 
ensue. Calving may thus be held to be an exciting cause, and yet the 
labor and fatigue of the act are not active factors. It is after the easy 
calving, when there has been little expenditure of muscular or nervous 
energy, and no loss of blood, that this malady is seen. Difficult par- 
turitions may be followed by metritis, but they are rarely connected 
with parturition fever. 

All these factors coincide in intensifying the one condition of ple- 
thora, and point to that as the most essential cause of this affection. 
It is needless to enter here into the much-debated question as to the 
mode in which the plethora brings about the characteristic symptoms 
and results. As the results show disorder or suspension of the nerv- 
ous functions mainly, it may suffice to say that this condition of the 
blood and blood-vessels is incompatible with the normal functional 
activity of the nerve centers. How much is due to congestion of the 
brain and how much to bloodlessness may well be debated, yet in a 
closed box like the cranium, in which the absolute contents can not be 
appreciably increased or diminished, it is evident that apart from drop- 
sical effusion or inflammatory exudation, there can only be a given 
amount of blood; therefore, if one portion of the brain is congested 
another must be proportionately bloodless, and as congestion of the 
eyes and head generally, and great heat of the head are most promi- 
nent features of the disease, congestion of the brain must be accepted. 
This, of course, implies a lack of blood in certain other parts or blood- 
vessels. 

Symptoms. — There may be said to be two extreme types of this dis- 
ease with intervening grades. In both forms there is the characteris- 
tic plethora, and more or less sudden loss o± voluntary movement and 
sensation indicating a sudden collapse of nervous power, but in one 
there is such prominent evidence of congestion of head and brain that 
it may be called the congestive form, par excellence, without thereby 
intimating that the torpid form is independent of congestion. 

In the congestive form there is sudden dullness, languor, hanging back 
in the stall, or drooping the head, uneasy movements of the hind limbs 
or tail; if the cow is moved she steps unsteadily or even staggers; she 
no longer notices her calf or her food; the eyes appear red and their 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 249 

pupils dilated ; the weakness increases and the cow lies down or falls 
and is thenceforward unable to rise. At this time the pulse is usually 
full and bounding and the temperature raised ; the head, horns, and ears 
being especially hot and the veins of the head full, while the visible 
mucous membranes of nose and eyes are deeply congested. The cow 
may lie on her breastbone with her feet beneath the body and her head 
turned sleepily round, with the nose resting on the right flank ; or, if 
worse, she may be stretched full on her side, with even the head 
extended, though at times it is suddenly raised and again dashed back 
on the ground. At such times the legs, fore and hind, struggle con- 
vulsively, evidently through unconscious nervous spasm. By this time 
the unconsciousness is usually complete; the eyes are glazed, their 
pupils widely dilated, and their lids are not moved when the ball of the 
eye is touched with the finger. Pricking the skin with a pin also fails 
to bring any wincing or other response. The pulse, at first from 50 to 
70 per minute, becomes more accelerated and weaker as the disease 
advances. The breathing is quickened, becoming more and more so 
with the violence of the symptoms, and at first associated with moan- 
ing (in exceptional cases bellowing), it may, before death, become slow, 
deep, sighing, or rattling (stertorous). The temperature, at first usu- 
ally raised, tends to become lower as stupor and utter insensibility and 
coma supervene. The bowels, which may have moved at the onset of 
the attack, become torpid or completely paralyzed, and, unless in case of 
improvement, they are not likely to operate again . Yet this is the result 
of paralysis and not of induration of the feces, as often shown by the 
semiliquid pultaceous condition of the contents after death. The blad- 
der, too, is paralyzed and fails to expel its contents. A free action of 
either bladder or bowels or of both is always a favorable symptom. 
The milk secretion may fail, yet often the udder continues to yield its 
product for a considerable time, and to draw off this and encourage free 
secretion by rubbing is always indicated. 

In nearly all cases the torpor of the digestive organs results in gas- 
tric disorder; the paunch becomes the seat of fermentation, producing 
gas which causes it to bloat up like a drum. There are frequent eruc- 
tations of gas and liquid and solid food, which, reaching the paralyzed 
throat, pass in part into the windpipe and cause inflammations of the 
air passages and lungs. 

In the torpid form of the disease there is much less indication of 
fever or violence. There may be no special heat about the horns, ears, 
or forehead, nor any marked redness or congestion of the eyes or nose, 
nor engorgement of the veins of the head. The attack comes on more 
slowly, with apparent weakness of the hind limbs, dullness, drowsiness, 
suspension of rumination and appetite, and a general indifference to 
surrounding objects. Soon the cow lies down, or falls and is unable to 
rise, but for one or two days she may rest on the breastbone and hold 
the head in the flank without showing any disorderly movements. 



250 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Meanwhile there is not only loss of muscular power and inability to 
stand, but also considerable dullness of sensation, pricking' the skin 
producing no quick response, and even touching the edge of the eye- 
lids causing no very prompt winking. Unless she gets relief, however, 
the case develops all the advanced symptoms of the more violent form 
and the animal perishes. 

In advanced and fatal cases of either form the insensibility becomes 
complete; no irritation of skin or eye meets any response; the eye 
becomes more dull and glassy ; the head rests on the ground or other 
object; unless prevented the cow lies stretched fully on her side; the 
pulse is small, rapid, and finally imperceptible ; the breathing is slow, 
deep, stertorous, and the expirations accompanied by puffing out of the 
cheeks, and death comes epiietly or with accompanying struggles. 

For such fatal disease prevention is of far more consequence than 
treatment. Among the most efficient preventives may be named a spare 
diet (amounting to actual starvation in very plethoric, heavy-milking 
cows), for a week before calving and at least four days after. A free 
access to salt and water is most important, as the salt favors drinking 
and the water serves to dilute the rich and dense blood. Iced water, 
however, is undesirable, as a chill may favor the onset of fever. A dose 
of Epsom salts (1 to 2 pounds) should be given twelve to twenty-four 
hours before calving is due, so that it may operate at or just before that 
act. In case calving has occurred unexpectedly in the heavy milker, 
lose no time in giving the purgative thereafter. If Epsom salts are not 
at hand use saltpeter (1 ounce) for several days. If the udder is greatly 
engorged before calving it may be milked for several days before, and 
should be not less than thrice a day after. A hungry calf is a good 
auxiliary, but for a very heavy milker the new-born calf gives but a 
very imperfect relief, and must be supplemented by the hand of the 
milker. Daily exercise is also of importance, and excepting in mid- 
summer, when the heat of the sun may be injurious, the value of open 
air is unquestionable. Even in summer an open shed or shady grove is 
incomparably better than a close, stuffy stall. A rich pasture (clover 
especially), in late May, June, or July, w T hen at its best, is to be care- 
fully avoided. Better keep the cow indoors on dry straw with plenty 
of salt and water than to have access to such pastures. It is safest to 
avoid breeding again from a cow that has once suffered. 

Treatment of the most varied kind has succeeded in particular cases 
and failed in others. Cows attacked in the first two days after calving 
usually die, but not always; those attacked at the end of a week nearly 
all recover. In those attacked from the third to the seventh day the 
mortality steadily decreases. In the following suggestions for treat- 
ment a distinction is made between the two extreme types of the dis- 
ease — the congestive and the paretic, or torpid. 

If the cow is seen before she goes down the abstraction of blood is 
demanded, and may usually be canied to the extent of 4 or even 6 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 251 

quarts. The fullness and force of the pulse must determine the amount; 
if it is weak and rapid or scarcely perceptible the vein must be instantly 
closed, and it may even be necessary to give ammoniacal stimulants. 
If the cow is lying down, unable to rise, and above all if no winking is 
caused by touching the eyeball, bleeding must be done, if at all, with 
great precaution. A pint or a quart may be all that can be safely taken, 
and in case the pulse has been small and weak no more should be drawn 
unless the pulse-beat strengthens. The fatal collapse already threat- 
ening is often precipitated by unguarded bleeding. The jugular vein 
may be opened as coming directly from the brain, and as the object is 
to lessen the density of the blood and the tension in the blood vessels 
without shock, it is not so essential to draw it in a full stream as in 
other cases of blood-letting. As the blood is withdrawn the place is 
speedily taken by liquids (mainly water), absorbed from all available 
parts of the body, and thus the blood is helpfully diluted. 

It is a good practice to give a dose of purgative medicine (Epsom 
salts 2 pounds, carbonate of ammonia £ ounce, nux vomica £ dram). If 
it is absorbed it will find its way to the bowels and start active secretion, 
thereby relieving the plethora; if it is not absorbed it will do no harm. 
Enemas of warm water and soap or oil may be beneficially employed. 

Iced water or bags of ice to the head (tied around the horns and 
covering the forehead and upper part of the neck), are of the very 
greatest value in cases in which the heat of the horns, ears, and head, 
the redness of the eyes and fixed dilatation of the pupils, are marked 
features. Like bleeding, it may be uncalled for in those cases in which 
the heat and general congestion of the head are absent. 

In these congestive cases, too, benefit is often derived from large and 
frequent doses (20 drops every four hours) of tincture of aconite. It 
acts not alone as a sedative to the heat and circulation, but also by 
favoring a free circulation iu the skin. In what may be called the non- 
congestive cases it is of little avail. 

Harms claims excellent results from large doses of tartar emetic, 1 
ounce for the first dose, 3 drams more after four hours, and 2 drams 
after four hours. If absorbed it will act after the manner of aconite 
as a sedative by causing a free circulation in the skin. 

This increased circulation in the skin serves to draw away blood 
from the internal organs, and thus to relieve the brain, and to secure 
the same result a variety of resorts are had with varying success in 
different cases. The application of hot (almost scalding) water to the 
back and loins, or to the limbs, acts in this way. So do mustard plas- 
ters, frictions with oil of turpentine, the prolonged movement over the 
part of a hot smoothing-iron with a thin cloth between it and the skin, 
or finally the application of strong liquor ammonia, covered up for 
fifteen minutes with a close rug. 

In cases with a high body temperature an excellent plan is to wrap 
the whole body in a blanket slightly wrung out of cold water, and cover 



252 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

this closely at all points with dry blankets to exclude the air and pre- 
vent evaporation and cooling - . In fifteen or twenty minutes a reaction 
will have taken place, the whole body will have been cooled somewhat 
by the blood returning from the skin since the blanket was applied, and 
the free perspiration will now serve to relieve both by cooling and by 
carrying off waste matters from the blood. This may be repeated sev- 
eral times a day if the temperature rises again. In cold weather the 
skin should be rubbed dry on each occasion. 

A similar method of drawing off the blood from the brain is by fre- 
quent rubbing of the udder and drawing off the milk. 

In case of extreme prostration and weak pulse one-half ounce car- 
bonate of ammonia may be given and repeated at the end of an hour 
or two if needed. It may be given as a roller-formed bolus made up 
with a very little flour to give it consistency, or if the cow can not 
swallow it may be dissolved in water and poured through a probang 
(Plate in, Fig. 2), or tube introduced into the stomach. 

Bloating of the left side (paunch) is a common and dangerous com- 
plication of the disease, as it at once aggravates the pressure on the 
brain, partly by expression of blood from the abdominal organs and 
partly by nervous action through the vagus and sympathetic nerves. 
It may often be checked by the use of carbonate of ammonia; or hypo- 
sulphite of soda (£ ounce) may be substituted; or oil of turpentine 
(1 ounce). In obstinate cases the paunch should be punctured in the 
upper part of the left flank by a trocar and canula (Plate in, Figs. 5a 
and 5b), and tbe latter left in place until it is no longer needed. 

Another most important precaution is to draw off the urine from 
the bladder several times a day, as a full bladder greatly aggravates 
the case. 

A weak induction current of electricity may be sent through the 
brain for ten minutes at a time in cases of extreme insensibility, and 
through the affected limb in case of remaining paralysis. 

In the torpid or noncongestive form of the disease, the treatment is 
tbe same as regards purgatives, stimulants, mix vomica, antiseptics 
for bloating, attention to the bladder and udder, counter irritants to 
spine or limbs, and even bleeding. The cold, wet sheets, and even the 
ice to the head, may often be dispensed with. 

One other precaution maybe named applicable to all cases, but espe- 
cially so to the more distinctly congestive ones. This is to keep the 
head above the level of the body and prevent injury from the striking 
of it on the ground or other hard body. The cow is to be packed up 
with bundles or bags of straw against the shoulders and hips, so as to 
let her rest on her breast and belly with her limbs under her. Then 
the head and neck are to be similarly supported, so as to keep them 
elevated and give them a soft yielding cushion if dashed from side to 
side. It may be even desirable to support the head by a rope round 
the horns, or a halter, the end of which is passed over a beam above. 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 253 

This serves to unload the head by favoring the gravitation backward 
of its blood, and protects the brain against injurious shocks. 

Gases often recover very quickly. A cow is found up and eating 
which was down utterly insensible a few hours before. Others recover 
more slowly, and require careful, restricted feeding and a daily dose of 
saltpeter and nux vomica for several days. Other complications must 
be met according to their nature. 

PALSY AFTER CALVING — DROPPING AFTER CALVING. 

This consists in a more or less complete loss of control of the hind 
limbs occurring after calving, and due either to low condition, weak- 
ness and exposure to cold, or to injurious compression of the nerves of 
the hind limbs by a large calf passing through the pelvis. Its symp- 
toms do not differ from those of palsy of the hind limbs, occurring at 
other times, and it may be treated in the same way, excepting so far 
as bruises of the vagina may demand special soothing treatment. 

CONGESTION OF THE UDDER — GARGET. 

In heavy milkers, before and just after calving, it is the rule that the 
mammary gland is enlarged, hot, tense and tender, and that a slight 
exudation or pasty swelling extends forward from the gland on the 
lower surface of the abdomen. This physiological congestion is looked 
upon as a matter of course, and disappears in two or three days when 
the secretion of milk has been fully established. This breaking up of 
the bag may be greatly hastened by the sucking of a hungry calf, and 
the kneading it gives the udder with its nose, by stripping the glands 
clean thrice daily, and by -active rubbing at each milking with the 
palm of the hand, with or without lard, or, better, with camphorated 
ointment. 

The congestion may be at times aggravated by standing in a draft of 
cold air, or by neglect to milk for an entire day or more (overstocking, 
hefting) with the view of making a great show of udder for purposes of 
sale. In such cases the surface of the bag pits on pressure, and the 
milk has a reddish tinge or even streaks of blood, or it is partially or 
fully clotted and is drawn with difficulty, mixed, it may be, with a yel- 
lowish serum (whey) which has separated from the casein. This should 
be treated like the above, though it may sometimes demand fomenta- 
tions with warm water to ward off inflammation, and it may be a week 
before the natural condition of the gland is restored. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER — SIMPLE MAMMITIS. 

Congestion may merge into active inflammation, or it may arise 
direct, in connection with exposure to cold or wet, with standing in a 
cold draft, with blows on the udder with clubs, stones, horns, or feet, 
with injury from a sharp or cold stone, or the projecting edge of a board 



254 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

or end of a nail in the floor, with sudden and extreme changes of 
weather, with overfeeding on rich albuminous loud like cotton-seed, 
beans, or peas, with indigestions, with sores on the teats, or with insuf- 
ficient stripping of the udder in milking. In the period of full milk the 
organ is so susceptible that any serious disturbance of the general 
health is liable to fall upon the udder. 

The symptoms and mode of onset vary in different cases. When fol- 
lowing exposure there is usually a violent shivering fit, with cold horns, 
ears, tail, and limbs, and general erection of the hair. This is succeeded 
by a flush of heat (reaction) in which the horns, ears, and limbs become 
unnaturally warm, and the gland swells up and becomes firm and solid 
in one, two, three, or all four quarters. There is hot, dry muzzle, ele- 
vated temperature, full, accelerated pulse, and excited breathing, 
impaired or suspended appetite, and rumination with more or less cos- 
tiveness, suppression of urine, and a lessened yield of milk, which may 
be entirely suppressed in the affected quarter. 

In other cases the shivering escapes notice, the general disorder of 
the system is little marked or comes on late, and the first observed sign 
of illness is the firm swelling, heat, and tenderness of the bag. As the 
inflammation increases and extends the hot, tender udder causes the 
animal to straddle with its hind limbs, and when walking to halt on the 
limb on that side. If the cow lies down it is on the unaffected side. 
With the increase in intensity and the extension of the inflammation 
the general fever manifests itself more prominently. In some instances 
the connective tissue beneath the skin and between the lobules of the 
gland is affected, and then the swelling is uniformly rounded and of 
nearly the same consistency, pitting everywhere on pressure. In other 
cases it primarily attacks the secreting tissue of the gland, and then 
the swelling is more localized, and appears as hard, nodular masses in 
the interior of the gland. This last is the usual form of inflammation 
occurring from infection entering by the teats. 

In all cases, but especially in the last-named form, the milk is sup- 
pressed and replaced by a watery fluid colored with blood (sometimes 
deeply), and mingled with masses of clotted casein. Later it becomes 
white and purulent, and in many cases of an offensive odor. 

The course of the disease is sometimes so rapid and at others so slow 
that no definite rule can be laid down. In two or three days, or from 
that to the end of the week, the bag may soften, lose its heat and ten- 
derness, and subside into the healthy condition, even resuming the 
secretion of milk. The longer the inflammatory hardness continues 
the greater the probability that its complete restoration will not be 
effected. When a portion of the gland fails to be restored in this way, 
and has its secretion arrested, it usually shrinks to a smaller size. 
More commonly a greater amount of the inflammatory product remains 
in the gland and develops into a solid fibrous mass, causing permanent 
hardening (induration). In other cases, in place of the product of 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 255 

inflammation developing into a fibrous mass, it softens and breaks 
down into the white creamy liquid pus (abscess). This abscess may 
make its way to the surface and escape externally, or it may burst into 
a milk duct and discharge through the teat. It may break into both 
and establish a channel for the escape of milk (fistula). In the worst 
types of the disease gangrene may ensue, a quarter or half, or even the 
whole udder, losing its vitality and sloughing off, if the cow can bear 
up against the depressing influeuce. These gangrenous cases are prob- 
ably always the result of infection and sometimes run a very rapidly 
fatal course. I recall one to which I was called as soon as the owner 
noticed it, yet I found one quarter dark blue, cold, and showing a ten- 
dency to the formation of blebs containing a bloody secretion. The 
cow, which had waded through a depth of semiliquid manure to reach 
her stall, died within twenty-four hours. 

Treatment will vary with the type and the stage of the disease. If 
the case is seen in the shivering fit, every effort should be made to cut 
that short, as the inflammation maybe thereby greatly moderated if not 
checked. Copious drinks of warm water thrown in from horn or bottle • 
equally copious warm injections ; the application of heat in some form 
to the surface of the body (by a rug wrung out of hot water ; by hanging 
over the back and loins bags loosely filled with bran, sand, salt, chaif, 
or other agent previously heated in a stove; by the use of a flatiron or 
the warming of the surface by a hot-air bath), or by active friction with 
straw wisps by two or more persons; the administration of a pint of 
strong alcoholic liquor, or of 1 ounce of ground ginger, may serve to cut 
short the attack. After half an hour's sweat, rub dry and cover with a 
dry blanket. 

If, on the other hand, there is little or no fever, and only a slight 
inflammation, rub well with camphorated ointment or a weak iodine 
ointment, and milk three, four, or six times a day, rubbing the bag 
thoroughly each time. Milking must be done with great gentleness 
squeezing t\ie teat in place of pulling and stripping it, and if this causes 
too much pain, the teat tube (Plate xxiv, Fig. 4), or the spring teat- 
dilator (Plate xxiv, Fig. 3) may be employed. 

In cases in which the fever has set in and the inflammation is more 
advanced, a dose of laxative medicine is desirable (Epsom salts, 1 to 2 
pounds, ginger, 1 ounce), which may be followed after the purging has 
ceased by daily doses of saltpeter, 1 ounce. Many rely on cooling and 
astringent applications to the inflamed quarter (vinegar, sugar of lead 
lotion, cold water, ice, etc.), but a safer and better resort is continued 
fomentation with warm water. A bucket of warm water replenished 
as it cools, may be set beneath the udder and two persons can raise a 
rug out of this and hold it against the udder, dipping it anew whenever 
the heat is somewhat lost. Or a sheet may be passed around the body 
with four holes cut for the teats and soft rags packed between it and 
the udder and kept warm by pouring on water as warm as the hands 



256 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

can bear, every ten or fifteen minutes. When this has been kept up 
for an hour or two the bag may be dried, well rubbed with soap and 
left thus with a soapy coating. If the pain is. great, extract of bella- 
donna may be applied along with the soap, and a dry suspensory band- 
age with holes for the teats may be applied. Strong mercurial oint- 
ment is very useful in relieving pain and softening the bag. This is 
especially valuable when the disease is protracted and induration 
threatens. It may be mixed with an equal amount of soap and half 
the amount of extract of belladonna. In cases of threatened induration 
excellent results are sometimes obtained from a weak induction current 
of electricity sent through the gland daily for ten minutes. 

If abscess threatens it may be favored by fomentation and opened as 
soon as fluctuation from finger to finger shows the formation of matter 
at a point formerly hard. The wound may bleed freely, and there is a 
risk of opening a milk duct, yet relief will be secured, and a dressing 
twice daily with a lotion of carbolic acid, 1 part, water, 20 parts, and 
glycerin, 1 part, will suffice to keep the wound clean and healthy. 

Gangrene of the affected part is often fatal. It demands antiseptics 
(chloride of zinc, 1 dram to 1 quart- water) applied frequently to the 
part, or if the case .can not be attended smear the affected quarter with 
melted Venice turpentine, or even wood tar. Antiseptic tonics (tinc- 
ture of muriate of iron, 4 drams) may also be given four times daily in 
a quart of water. 

CONTAGIOUS MAMMITIS — CONTAGIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER. 

As stated in the last article, that form of inflammation of the udder 
which attacks the gland ducts and follicles, causing deep-seated, hard, 
nodular swellings, is often contagious. Franck has demonstrated this 
by injecting into the milk ducts in different cows (milking and dry), 
the pus from the bags of cows affected with mammitis, or the liquids 
of putrid flesh, or putrid blood, and in every case he produced acute 
inflammation of the gland tissue within twenty -four hours. He thinks 
that in ordinary conditions the septic germ gains access by propagating 
itself through the milk, filling the milk canal and oozing from the exter- 
nal orifice. He points to this as a reason why dry cows escape the 
malady, though mingling freely with the sufferers, and why such dry 
cows do not suffer from inflammation of the gland tissue when attacked 
with foot-and-mouth disease. In this last case it is evident that it is 
not simply the inoculation with the milker's hand that is lacking, for 
the skin of the bag is attacked, but not its secreting glandular parts. 
Now that in any case of abscess we look for the cause in the chain 
forms of globular bacteria ( Streptococcus pyogenes), in the cluster form 
of white globular bacteria (Staphylococcus pyogenes albus), and in the 
golden and citron yellow forms of clustered globular bacteria (Stajrfiy- 
lococcus pyogenes aureus and Staphylococcus pyogenes citreus), the for- 
mation of pus gives presumptive evidence of the action of one or more 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 257 

of these germs. So in cases of mortification of the bag; in the very- 
occurrence there is fair circumstantial evidence of the presence of 
erysipelas micrococcus or other germ which kills the local tissues. 
Again, in tuberculosis affecting the bag (a not uncommon condition), 
the active local cause is without doubt the tubercle bacillus. 

It is now well established that the milk ducts and gland tissue, as 
well as any sore on the exterior of the teat or bag, may become the seat 
of diphtheritic inflammation and the formation of the skin-like pellicles 
that characterize that disease. Here again there is a definite germ 
causing the disease. The liability of cattle to diphtheria was noticed 
by Damman in connection with the epizootic outbreak in calves and 
children in Pomerania in 1875, and, among others, Roux and Yersin 
have since inoculated the disease from man upon animals.* Dr. Klein, 
of London, in 1889, inoculated two cows, respectively three and four 
weeks after calving, with the products from a case of diphtheria in 
man, and in three days found a serous exudating sore and hard swell- 
ing in the seat of inoculation in the right shoulder, followed by vesicles 
(blisters) on the teats and udder, appearing from the fourth to the 
eighth day. He found the diphtheria bacillus in these, in the shoulder 
sore, in the milk (in which it increased enormously if left to stand at 
C8° F.), in the eruption produced in calves by inoculation with the 
scrapings, in cats that died with diphtheria after lapping the milk, and 
other cats that died of diphtheria after living with the former.t 

It has been claimed that scarlet fever has been transmitted from the 
cow to man, and it can not be denied that in many cases the infection 
has been disseminated through the milk. The facts, however, when 
brought out fully, have shown that in almost every case the milk had 
first come in contact with a person suffering or recovering from scarlet 
fever, so that the milk was infected after it left the cow. The alleged 
exceptional cases at Hendon and Dover, England, are not conclusive. 
In the Hendon outbreak inoculations were made on calves from the 
slight eruption on the cow's teats, and they had a slight eruption on 
the lips and a form of inflammation of the kidneys, which Dr. Klein 
thought resembled that of scarlatina. The cows that had brought the 
disease to the Hendon dairies were traced back to Wiltshire, and cows 
were found there suffering from a similar malady, but there was no 
sign of scarlet fever resulting. In the Dover outbreak, the dairyman 
first denied any disease in his cows, and brought the certificate of a 
veterinarian to prove that they were sound at the time of the investi- 
gation ; then later he confessed that the cows had had foot-and-mouth 
disease, and consequent eruption on the teats some time before. So 

*The diphtheria hacillus of calves, according to Loffler, is not the same as the 
human diphtheria bacillus. There is as yet no positive evidence to prove that hu- 
man diphtheria may be communicated to animals, excepting perhaps the cat, unless 
this is done by direct inoculation. [Ed.] 

t Nineteenth annual report of the local government board, 1889-90. 
21697 17 



258 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the question remains whether the man who denied sickness in the cows 
to begin with, and adduced professional evidence of this, did not later 
acknowledge the foot-and-mouth disease as a blind to hide the real 
source of the trouble in scarlatina in his own family or the family of 
an employe. Dr. Stickler's corroborative proof from the three children 
inoculated with imported virus of foot-and-mouth disease is equally in- 
conclusive, as the results were certainly not those of the foot-and-mouth 
disease as it appears in man, and thefact that the children did not con- 
tract scarlatina when exposed to it later proves only that they were at 
the time naturally insusceptible, or that Dr. Stickler had in some way 
infected his virus or the lancet used to insert it. so as to give them 
scarlatina. Certain it is that foot-and-mouth disease does not produce 
scarlet fever in man, and that scarlet fever so constantly prevalent on 
the American continent does not produce foot-and-mouth disease, from 
which this continent is happily free. Foot-and-mouth disease does, 
however, produce in man an eruj)tion of blisters on the mouth and 
fingers and other symptoms which Dr. Stickler's cases failed to show. 
Whether the swollen glands of the neck in the one case and the sore 
throat in the other resulted from scarlatinal germs introduced from 
another source, or whether these were merely the result of septic inoc- 
ulation with the impure and overkept matter imported from England, 
does not appear. We are left, therefore, without positive proof of the 
existence of scarlatina in the cow. That the milk may be contaminated, 
however, after leaving the cow is certain, and it has been suggested 
that on the open sore of the cow a scarlatina germ may be temporarily 
grafted, which, though harmless to the cow, may escape into the pail 
during milking and infect the person using the milk. Too great care 
can not be exercised in keeping the infection of scarlet fever apart from 
dairy cows or their milk products. 

Among other contagious forms of mammitis I may name one which 
I have encountered in large dairies, starting as a sore and slight swell- 
ing at the opening of the teat and extending up along the milk duct 
to the gland structure in the bag, all of which become indurated, nodu- 
lar, and painful. The milk is entirely suppressed in that quarter of the 
bag, and from that it may extend to the others as it does from cow to 
cow through the milker's hands. 

Another form almost universally prevalent in this district of central 
New York in 1889 broke out over the teats and udder as blisters 
strongly resembling cow-pox, but which were not propagated when 
inoculated on calves. It was only exceptionally that this extended 
through the teat to the gland tissue, yet in some instances the bag was 
lost from this cause. Scarlatina in man was very prevalent at the 
time (many schools were closed in consequence), but no definite con^ 
nection seemed to exist between this and the cow disease, and on dif- 
ferent dr. ivy farms there were families of young children that had never 
had scarlet fever and who did not at that time contract it. 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PAETURITION. 259 

It will be seen that contagious mammitis is not a single affection, but 
a group of diseases which have this in common, that they attack the 
udder. 

Prevention is to be especially sought in all such cases. In purchas- 
ing new cows see that they come from a herd where the teats and udder 
are sound. If a new cow conies from a public market with unknown 
antecedents, let her.be milked for a week by a person who does not milk 
any other cows. Keep her in a separate stall from others, so that there 
may be no infection from litter or flooring. Wash the udder with soap 
and water, and wet with a solution of two teaspoonsful carbolic acid in 
a pint of water before letting the regular milker of the other cows take 
her. If any cow in the herd shows the indurated end of the teat, or 
the inflammation and nodular tender character of the gland, separate 
her at once and give her a separate milker. If another cow is to be 
put into the stall she occupied, first clean and scrape it, and wet it 
with a strong solution of bluestone, 5 ounces in a gallon of water. The 
milk may be drawn off with a teat tube, or spring teat dilator (Plate 
xxiv, figs. 3 and I), and the milk ducts injected frequently with a solution 
of peroxide of hydrogen. I have had little success in checking the 
upward progress of the disease through the teat with carbolic acid, or 
boracic acid solutions. Used on the outside of the other teats, how- 
ever, these may serve to prevent them from becoming infected. In the 
absence of peroxide of hydrogen the affected teat maybe injected with 
a solution of 1 grain corrosive sublimate in a pint of water, and the 
same may be used on the other teats, provided it is washed off every 
time before milking. 

As additional precautions, no cow with a retained afterbirth or 
unhealthy discharge from the womb should be left with the other cows. 
Such cows doubtless infect their own udders and those of the cows next 
them by lashing with the soiled tail. If milkers handle retained after- 
birth or vaginal discharge, or unhealthy wounds, or assist in a difficult 
and protracted parturition, they should wash the hands and arms thor- 
oughly with soap and warm water and then rub them with the corrosive 
sublimate solution, or if not, at least with one of carbolic acid. Clothes 
stained with such offensive products should be washed. 

The general treatment of contagious mammitis does not differ from 
that of the simple form, except that antiseptics should be given by the 
mouth as well as applied locally (hyposulphite of soda, one-half ounce 
daily). 

COWPOX. 

This is another form of contagious inflammation of the udder which 
does not spread readily from animal to animal except by the hands of 
the milker. It is held to occur spontaneously in the cow, but this is 
altogether improbable, and so-called spontaneous cases are rather to be 
looked on as instances in which the germs have been preserved dry in 
the buildings or introduced in some unknown manner. It is not 



260 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

uncommon in the horse, attacking the heels, the lips, or some other 
inoculated part of the body, and is theu easily transferred to the cow, 
if the same man grooms and dresses the horse and milks the cow. It 
may also appear in the cow by infection, more or less direct, from a per- 
son who has been successfully vaccinated. Many believe that it is only 
a form of the smallpox of man modified by passing through the system 
of cow or horse. It is, however, unreasonable to suppose that this 
alleged modified smallpox could have been transmitted from child to 
child (the most susceptible of the human race) for ninety years, under 
all possible conditions, without once reverting to its original type of 
smallpox. Chauveau's experiments on both cattle and horses with the 
virus of smallpox, and its inoculation back on the human subject, go 
far to show that in the climate of western Europe, at least, no such 
transformation takes place. Smallpox remains smallpox and cowpox 
cowpox. Again, smallpox is communicable to a person who visits the 
patient in his room but avoids touching him, while cowpox is never 
thus transferred through the air unless deliberately diffused in the form 
of spray. 

The disease in the cow is ushered in by a slight fever, which, how- 
ever, is usually overlooked, and the first sign is tenderness of the teats. 
Examined, these may be redder and hotter than normal, and at the end 
of two days there appear little nodules, like small peas, of a pale red 
color, and increasing so that they may measure three-fourths of an inch 
to 1 inch in diameter by the seventh day. The yield of milk diminishes, 
and when heated it coagulates slightly. From the seventh to the tenth 
day the eruption forms into a blister with a depression in the center 
and raised margins, and from which the whole of the liquid can not be 
drawn out by a single puncture. The blister, in other words, is cham- 
bered, and each chamber must be opened to evacuate the whole of the 
contents. If the pock forms on a surface where there is thick hair it 
does not rise as a blister, but oozes out a straw-colored fluid which con- 
cretes on the hairs in an amber-colored mass. In one or two days after 
the pock is full it becomes yellow from contained pus, and then dries 
into a brownish yellow scab, which finally falls, leaving one or more 
distinct pits in the skin. Upon the teats, however, this regular course 
is rarely seen; the vesicles are burst by the hands of the milker as soon 
as liquid is formed, and as they continue to suffer at each milking they 
form raw, angry sores, scabbing more or less with intervals, but slow 
to undergo healing. 

The only treatment required is to heal the sores, and as milking is 
the main cause of their persistence that must be done as gently as 
possible, or even with the teat tube or dilator (Plate xxiv, Figs. 3 and 4). 
It is essential to check the propagation of the germ, and for this pur- 
pose the sore teats may be washed frequently with a solution of half 
an ounce hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water. This will usually 
check the inflammation and cut short the malady. 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 261 

SUPPRESSION OF MILK. 

The absence of milk in the udder may result from ill health, debility, 
emaciation, chronic disease of the bag, wasting of the gland from pre- 
vious disease, or insufficient food, but sometimes it will occur suddenly 
without any appreciable cause. The treatment will consist in remov- 
ing the cause of the disease, to feed well on rich albuminoid food made 
into warm mashes, and to give ounce doses of aromatic carminatives, 
like anise-seed, fennel-seed, etc. Eubbing and stripping the udder are 
useful ; and the application of oil of lavender or of turpentine, or even 
a blister of Spanish flies, will sometimes succeed. 

BLOODY MILK. 

Blood may escape with the milk when the udder has been injured by 
blows, . also when it is congested or inflamed, when the circulation 
through it has been suddenly increased by richer and more abundant 
food, or when the cow is under the excitement of heat. The milk froth- 
ing up and assuming a pink tinge is often the first sign of red-water, and 
it may result from eating acrid or irritant plants, like the ranunculaeese, 
resinous plants, etc. Deposits of tubercle or tumors in the udder, or 
induration of the gland, may be efficient causes, the irritation caused by 
milking contributing to draw the blood. Finally there may be a reddish 
tinge or sediment when madder or logwood has been eaten. 

In milk which becomes red after it is drawn it may be due to the 
presence in it of the micrococcus prodigiosus. This also grows on bread, 
and is the explanation of the supposed miracle of the "bleeding host." 

The treatment will vary with the cause. In congested glands give 1 
pound of ^epsom salts, and daily thereafter £ ounce saltpeter, with a 
dram of chlorate of potash ; bathe the bag with hot or cold water, and 
rub with camphorated lard. If the food is too rich or abundant it must 
be reduced. If from acrid plants these must be removed from pasture 
or fodder. Induration of the udder may be met by rubbing with a com- 
bination of iodine ointment 1 part, soft soap 2 parts ; or mercurial oint- 
ment and soap may be used. Careful milking is imperative. 

BLUE MILK. 

Watery milk is blue, but the presence of a germ (Bacillus cyanogenus) 
causes a distinct blue shade even in rich milk and cream. It may reach 
the milk after it has been drawn, or it may find its way into the open- 
ing of the milk ducts and enter the milk as it is drawn. In the latter 
case, frequent milking and the injection into the teats of a solution of 2 
drams of hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water will serve to destroy 
them. 

STRINGY MILK. 

This may be caused by fungi developing in the liquid, and that the 
spores are present in the system of the cow may be safely inferred from 



262 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the fact that in a large herd two or three cows only will yield such milk 
at a time, and that after a run of ten days or a fortnight they will recover 
and others will be attacked. I have found that such affected cows had 
the temperature raised one or two degrees above the others. Like most 
other fungi, this does not grow out into filaments within the body of 
the cow, but in five or six hours after milking the surface layers are 
found to be one dense network of filaments. If a needle is dipped in 
this and lifted, the liquid is drawn out into a long thread. In one case 
which I investigated near Ithaca, 1ST. Y., the contamination was mani- 
festly due to a spring which oozed out of a bank of black muck soil aud 
stood in pools mixed with the dejections of the animals. Inoculation 
of pure milk with the water as it flowed out of this bank developed in 
it the fungus and the string characters. By fencing in this spring and 
giving the affected cows each 2 drams bisulphite of soda daily the trouble 
was arrested promptly and permanently. 

CHAPPED TEATS. 

These may be caused by anything which irritates them. The power- 
ful sucking of the calf, the sudden chilling of the teat in winter after 
the calf has just let it go, or after the completion of milking with a wet 
hand; contact with cold water, or stagnant putrid water, or with filth 
or irritants when lying down; slight congestions of the skin in connec- 
tion with overstocking, and, indeed, any source of local irritation may 
cause chapping. This may be slight or extend into great gaping sores 
and induce retention of milk or even mammitis. Soothing applications 
of vaseline, or a combination of equal parts of spermaceti and oil of 
sweet almonds, may be applied. If healing is tardy add 10 grains bal- 
sam of Peru to the ounce of ointment. If the irritation is very great, 
wash first with a solution of 1 dram sugar of lead in 1 pint of water, 
and then apply benzoated oxide of zinc ointment. 

WARTS ON THE TEATS. 

These are often very troublesome, yet they may be greatly benefited 
or entirely removed by smearing them thickly after each milking with 
pure olive oil. If they persist they may be cut off with a sharp pair of 
scissors and the sore touched with a stick of lunar caustic. They may 
now be oiled and the caustic repeated as demanded to prevent their 
renewed growth. 

Scabby teats may be smeared with vaseline containing enough carbolic 
acid to give it an odor: 

TEAT. BLOCKED BY CONCRETION OP CASEIN. 

Under unhealthy conditions of the gland or milk ducts, clots of casein 
form, and these, pressed clear of most of their liquid and rolled into 
rounded masses, may block the passage. They can be moved up and 
down by manipulation of the teat, and if they can not be pressed out they 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 263 

may be extracted by using the spring teat dilator (Plate xxiv, Fig. 3) 
being held surrounded by its three limbs. Before extraction is attempted 
an ounce of almond oil previously boiled should be injected into the teat. 

TEAT BLOCKED BY CALCULUS. 

When the calcareous matter of the milk has been precipitated in the 
form of a smooth, rounded stone, a rough conglomerated concretion, 
or a line sand-like debris, it may cause obstruction and irritation. 
These bodies are felt to be much harder than those formed by casein, 
and the milk usually contains gritty particles. Extraction may be 
attempted by simple milking in the case of the finely divided gritty 
matter, or with the spring dilator (Plate xxiv, Fig. 3) in the case of the 
larger masses. Should this fail the teat may be laid open with the knife 
and sewed up again or closed with collodion, but such an operation is 
best deferred until the cow is dry. 

TEAT BLOCKED BY A WARTY OR OTHER GROWTH INSIDE. 

In this case the obstruction may be near the orifice of the teat or 
higher up, and the solid mass is not movable up and down with the 
same freedom as are concretions and calculi. The movement is limited 
by the elasticity of the inner membrane of the teat from which it 
grows, and is somewhat freer in certain cases because the growth has 
become loose and hangs by a narrow neck. In the case of the looser 
growths they may be snared by a fine spring passed as a loop through 
a fine tube (like a teat tube open at each end), and introduced into the 
teat. When this can not be done, the only resort is to cut in and excise 
it while the cow is dry. 

THICKENING OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE AND CLOSURE OF THE 

MILK-DUCT. 

As a result of inflammation extending from without inward, a gradual 
narrowing of the milk-duct may occur from thickening and narrowing 
of its lining membrane. This may be limited to a small area near the 
lower end, or it may extend through the whole length of the teat. 
The stream of milk becomes finer and finer until it finally ceases alto- 
gether, and a firm cord is felt running through the teat. If the con- 
striction is only at the outlet the teat may be seized and distended by 
pressing the milk down into it from above, and an incision may be made 
with a sharp penknife in two directions at right angles to each other, 
and directly in the original opening. The knife should be first cleansed 
in boiling water. The opening may be kept from closing by a dumb- 
bell shaped bougie of gutta-percha (Plate xxiv, Fig. 5) or by the spring 
dilator. If the obstruction is more extended it may be perforated by 
Luthi's perforating sound. (Plate xxiv, Fig. la and lb.) This is a steel 
wire with a ring at one end, and at the other is screwed on to the wire 
a conical cap with sharp cutting edges at the base, which scrapes away 



2G4 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the thickened masses of cells as it is drawn back. This may be passed 
again and again to sufficiently enlarge the passage, and then the passage 
may be kept open by wearing a long dumb-bell bougie, a thick i>iece of 
carbolized catgnt, or a spring dilator. If the passage can not be suffi- 
ciently opened with the sound it may be incised by the hidden bistoury. 
(Plate xxiv, Fig. 2.) This is a knife lying alongside a flattened protector 
with smooth rounded edges, but which can be projected to any required 
distance by a lever on the handle. The incisions are made in four 
directions and as deep as maybe necessary, and the walls can then be 
held apart by the spring dilator until they heal. In case the constric- 
tion and thickening of the canal extend the whole length of the teat, 
it is practically beyond remedy, as the gland is usually involved so as 
to render it useless. 

CLOSURE OF THE MILK-DUCT BY A MEMBRANE. 

In this form the duct of the teat is closed by the constriction of its 
lining membrane at one point, usually without thickening. The clos- 
ure usually takes place while the cow is dry, otherwise its progress is 
gradual and for a time the milk may still be pressed through slowly. 
In such a case, if left at rest, the lower part of the teat fills up and the 
milk flows in a full stream at the first pressure, but after this it will 
not fill up again without sufficient time for it to filter through. This is 
to be cut open by the hidden bistoury (Plate xxiv, Fig. 2), which may be 
first passed through the opening of the membrane, if such exists. If 
not it may be bored through, or it may be pressed up against the mem- 
brane at one side of the teat and opened toward the center, so as to 
cut its way through. Incisions should be made in at least two oppo- 
site directions, and the edges may be then held apart by wearing the 
spring dilator until healing has been completed. 

In all cases of operations on the teats the instruments must be thor- 
oughly disinfected with hot water, or by dipping in carbolic acid, and 
then in water that has been boiled. 

OPENING IN THE SIDE OF THE TEAT — MILK FISTULA. 

This may occur from wounds penetrating the milk duct and failing 
to close, or it may be congenital, and then very often it leads to a dis- 
tinct milk duct and an independent portion of the gland. In the first 
form it is only necessary to dissect away the skin leading into the open- 
ing for some distance down, to close the orifice with stitches, and to 
cover the whole with collodion. A teat tube or spring dilator may be 
worn to drain off the milk and prevent distension and reopening of the 
orifice. In case of an independent milk- duct and gland one of two 
courses may be selected : to open the one duct into the other by inci- 
sion and then close the offending opening, or to inject the superfluous 
gland through its duct with a caustic solution so as to destroy its secre- 
ting power. In both cases it is desirable to wait until the cow goes dry. 



DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
Plates XXII, XXITI : 

Illustrate various appliances used iu prolapse or inversion of the uterus. The 
uterus should first be returned to its proper situation and then some appa- 
ratus applied to prevent a recurrence of the inversion or protrusion 
Plate XXII: 

Fig. 1. Crupper, strap truss— taken from Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery. 
Fig. 2. Renault's rope truss. The rope for this truss should be from 25 to°30 feet 
long, and about the thickness of the little finger. 
Plate XXIII: 

Fig. 1. Cow to which Delwart's rope truss has been applied. 
Fig. la. Shows the loop of Delwart's truss. 

Fig. 2. Zundel's labial sutures. These consist of two wires passed through the 
lips of the vulva in a horizontal direction, and two additional wires passed 
through the loops at the ends of the horizontal wires in order to hold them 
in place. 
Fig. 3. Iron truss for holding the vagina or uterus in place after calving. The 
cords are passed through the eyes at the corners of the triangular iron; the 
base of the triangle fits under the tail. The truss is from 5 to 7 inches long, 
and about 2£ inches wide. 
Plate XXIV: 

Fig. 1. Liithi's perforating sound, for opening the milk canal through the teat 
when this has become occluded. A, the sound one-half the natural size; B 
section of head of sound, natural size, showing cutting edge. 
Fig. 2. Bistouri cache". A blade hidden in its sheath which by pressure of the 
finger may be made to protrude a certain distance. This distance is regu- 
lated by the screw near the handle. The instrument is used to open the 
milk canal when closed up. It is introduced into the milk canal with its 
blade in the sheath and withdrawn with the blade protruding 
Fig. 3. Spring teat dilator, about i natural size, for dilating the milk canal. 
Fig. 4. Ring teat syphon, for withdrawing milk when the teat is sore or injured. 
Fig. 5. Gutta-percha bougie, for dilating the opening of the teat. 
Fig. 6. Truss applied to calf for umbilical or navel hernia. From Fleming's 

Veterinary Obstetrics. 
Fig. 7. Armatage's iron clam for umbilical or navel hernia. When this clam is 
applied care must be taken not to include a portion of the bowel. 

265 



PLATE XXU. 




.Hnierroc PtntriHf Ct Sosron. 



SUPPORTS FOR PROLAPSED UTERUS. 



PLATE XXIfJ. 




SUPPORTS FOR PROLAPSEJ) UTERUS. 



PLATE XXEV. 




DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 



By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 



SUSPENDED BREATHING. 

The moment the circulation through the navel string is stopped the 
blood of the calf begins to get overcharged with carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), 
and unless breathing is speedily established death promptly follows. 
Fortunately the desire to breathe, roused by the circulation of the venous 
blood and the reflex action from the wet and chilling skin, usually at 
once starts the contractions of the diaphragm and life is insured. Among 
the obstacles to breathing may be named suffocation before or during 
birth from compression of the navel cord and the arrest of its circula- 
tion ; the detachment of the fetal membranes from the womb before 
the calf is born ; a too free communication between the two auricles of 
the heart (foramen ovale) by which the non aerated blood has mixed too 
abundantly with the aerated and induced debility and profound weak- 
ness; a condition of ill health and debility of the calf as a result of 
semi-starvation, overwork, or disease of the cow; fainting in such de- 
bilitated calf when calving has been difficult and prolonged; the birth 
of the calf with its head enveloped in the fetal membranes so that it 
has been unable to breathe; and the presence of tenacious phlegm in 
the mouth and nose, acting in the same manner. 

Beside the importance of proper care and feeding of the cow as a 
preventive measure, attention should be given at once to relieve the 
new-born calf of its investing membrane and of any mucus that has 
collected in mouth or nostrils. Wiping out the nose deeply with a 
finger or feather excites to sneezing, hence to breathing. Blowing into 
the nose has a similar effect. Sucking the nostril through a tube applied 
to it is even more effective. Slapping the chest with the palm of the 
hand or with a towel dipped in cold water, compression and relaxation 
alternately of the walls of the chest, may start the action, and ammonia 
or even tobacco smoke blown into the nose may suffice. Every second 
is precious, however, and if possible the lungs should be dilated by 
forcibly introducing air from a bellows or from the human lungs. As 
the air is blown in through bellows or a tube the upper end of the wind- 
pipe must be pressed back against the gullet, as otherwise the air will 

267 



268 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

go to the stomach. In a large dairy a piece of elastic tubing one- third 
of an inch in bore should be kept at hand for sucking and blowing in such 
cases. 

BLEEDING FROM THE NAVEL. 

This may occur in two conditions, when the cord is cut .off too close 
to the navel and left untied, and when it tears off at the navel (Plate 
xiv). It may also bleed when torn across naturally, if it is sucked by 
the dam or another calf. In an animal with little plasticity to its blood 
it will flow under almost any circumstances. Where any cord is left it 
is always safe to tie it, and it is only when it is swollen and may possi- 
bly contain a loop of the bowel that there is danger in doing so. By 
pressing upward any bulky contents such danger is avoided. If torn, 
or cut too close to be tied, the bleeding may be checked by applying 
alum, copperas, or for a fraction of a second the end of an iron rod at a 
dull-red heat. If much blood has been lost it may be requisite to trans- 
fuse several ounces of blood, or of a weak common-salt solution, into the 
open umbilical vein. 

URINE DISCHARGED THROUGH THE NAVEL — PERSISTENT URACHUS. 

Before birth the urine passes from the bladder by a special tube 
through the navel and navel-string into the outer water-bag (allantois) 
(Plate xn). This closes at birth, and in the calf the tube is drawn in 
toward the bladder. It is only in the bull calf that it is likely to 
remain open, doubtless because of the long narrow channel through 
which the urine must otherwise escape. The urethra, too, is sometimes 
abnormally narrow, or even closed in the male. If part of the cord 
remains, tie it and allow the whole to wither up naturally. If the cord 
has been removed and the tube (urachus) protrudes, discharging the 
urine, that alone must be tied. If there is nothing pendent the urachus 
must be seized, covered by the skin, and a curved needle being passed 
through the skin and above the duct it may be tied along with this 
skin. A blister of Spanish flies, causing swelbng of the skin, will often 
close the orifice. So with the hot iron. If the urethra of the male is 
impervious it can rarely be remedied. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE URACHUS (NAVEL URINE-DUCT). 

This may originate in direct mechanical injury to the navel in calv- 
ing, or shortly after, with or without the lodgment of irritant and sep- 
tic matter on its lacerated or cut end. The mere contact with healthy 
urine, hitherto harmless, can not be looked on as becoming suddenly 
irritating. The affection is usually marked by the presence of redness 
and swelling at the posterior part of the navel and the escape of urine 
and a few drops of whitish serous pus from the orifice of the urachus. 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 269 

In those cases in which urine is not discharged a tender swelling, like 
a thick cord extending upward and backward from the navel into the 
abdomen, may be identified. The navel enlargement may be consider- 
able, but it is solid, does not gurgle on handling, and can not be done 
away with by pressing it back into the abdomen as in a case of hernia. 

In cases at first closed the pus may burst out later, coming from the 
back part of the navel and the swelling extending backward. In other 
cases whitish pus may pass with the urine by the ordinary channel, 
showing that it has opened back into the bladder. In other cases tbe 
umbilical veins become involved, in which case the swelling extends 
forward as well as backward. Thus the disease may result in destruc- 
tive disorders of the liver, lungs, and, above all, of the joints. 

The disease may usually be warded off or rendered simple and com- 
paratively harmless by applying antiseptics to the navel-string at 
birth (carbolic acid 1 part, water and glycerine 5 parts each, or wood 
tar). Later, antiseptics may be freely used (hyposulphite of soda 4 
drams, water 1 quart) as an application to the surface and as an injec- 
tion into the urachus, or even into the bladder if the two still commu- 
nicate. If they no longer communicate, a stronger injection may be 
used (tincture of perchloride of iron 60 drops, alcohol 1 ounce). Sev- 
eral weeks will be required for complete recovery. 

ABSCESS OF THE NAVEL. 

As the result of irritation at calving or by the withered cord, or by 
licking with the rough tongue of the cow, inflammation may attack the 
loose connective tissue of the navel to the exclusion of the urachus 
and veins, and go on to the formation of matter. In this case a firm 
swelling appears as large as the fist, which softens in the center and 
may finally burst and discharge. The opening, however, is usually 
small and may close prematurely, so that abscess after abscess is 
formed. It is distinguished from hernia by the fact that it can not be 
returned into the abdomen, and from inflammations of the veins and 
urachus by the absence of swellings forward and backward along the 
lines of these canals. 

Treatment consists in an early opening of the abscess by a free incision 
and the injection twice a day of an astringent antiseptic (chloride of 
zinc ^ dram, water 1 pint). 

INFLAMMATION OF THE NAVEL VEINS — UMBILICAL PHLEBITIS. 

In this affection of the navel the inflammation may start directly 
from mechanical injury, as in either of the two forms just described, 
but on this are inoculated infective microbes, derived from a retained 
and putrefying afterbirth, an abortion, a metritis, a fetid discharge 
from the womb, an unhealthy open sore, a case of erysipelas, from over- 



270 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

crowding, from filthy floor or bedding, or from an offensive accumula- 
tion of manure, solid or liquid. As the microbes vary in different cases, 
given outbreaks will differ materially in their nature. One is erysipe- 
las ; another purulent infection with the tendency to secondary abscesses 
in the joints, liver, lungs, etc.; another is due to a septic germ and is 
associated with fetid discharge from the navel and general putrid 
blood poisoning. In estimating the causes of the disease we must not 
omit debility of the calf when the mother has been underfed or badly 
housed, or when either she or the fetus has been diseased. 

The symptoms will vary. With the chain-form germs (streptococci) 
of erysipelas the navel becomes intensely red, with a very firm, painful 
swelling ending abruptly at the edges in sound skin, and extending 
forward along the umbilical veins. The secondary diseases are circum- 
scribed black engorgements (infarctions) or abscesses of the liver, lungs, 
kidneys, or other internal organs, and sometimes disease of the joints. 

With the ordinary pus-producing germs [Staphylococcus pyogenes 
aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes), the local inflammation in the navel 
causes a hot, painful swelling, which rapidly advances to the formation 
of matter (pus), and the raw exposed surface, at first bright red, 
becomes dark red or black, soft, friable, and pultaceous. If the pus is 
white, creamy, and comparatively inoffensive in odor, the secondary 
formations in internal organs and joints are mainly of the same purulent 
character (secondary abscesses). 

If, on the other hand, the discharge is very offensive and the pus 
more serous or watery or bloody, there is reason to suspect the presence 
of some of the septic bacteria, and the results on the general system are 
a high fever and softening of the liver and spleen, and no tendency to 
abscesses of the internal organs. Diarrhea is a common symptom, and 
death ensues early, the blood after death being found unclotted. 

Complicated cases are common, and in all alike the umbilical veins 
usually remain open and can be explored by a probe passed at first 
upward and then forward towards the liver. 

Prevention is sought by applying a lotion of carbolic acid to the 
navel string at birth, or it may be smeared with common Avood tar, 
which is at once antiseptic and a protective covering against germs. 
In the absence of either a strong solution of oak bark may be used. 

Local treatment consists in the application of antiseptics to the sur- 
face and their injection into the vein. As a lotion use carbolic acid, 1 
ounce in a quart of strong decoction of oak bark, or salicylic acid or 
salol may be sprinkled on the surface. The interior of the vein should 
be swabbed out with a probe wrapped around with cottonwool and 
dipped in boracic or salicylic acid. 

If complications have extended to the liver or other internal organs, 
or the joints, other treatment will be demanded. In acute cases of 
general infection an early fatal result is to be expected, 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 271 

PYJEMIC AND SEPTICEMIC INFLAMMATION OF JOINTS IN CALVES. — 

JOINT-ILL. 

This occurs in young calves within the first months after birth ; it 
persists in the joints when once attacked, and is usually connected with 
disease of the navel. Rheumatism, on the other hand, rarely occurs in 
a calf under a month old. It tends to shift from joint to joint and is 
independent of any navel disease. Rheumatism, again, affects the fibrous 
structures of the joints, and rarely results in the formation of white 
matter, while the affection before named attacks the structures outside 
as well as inside the joints and above all the ends of the bones, and 
tends to the destruction and crumbling of their tissue, and even to the 
formation of open sores through which the fragile bones are exposed. 
The microbes from the unhealthy and infected wound in the navel pass 
into the system through the veins, or, in the case of the erysipelas germ, 
through the lymphatics, and form colonies and local inflammations and 
abscesses in and around the joints. 

The symptoms are swellingof one or more joints, which are very hot and 
tender. The calf is stiff and lame, lies down constantly, and cares not 
to suck. There is very high fever and accelerated breathing and pulse, 
and there is swelling and purulent discharge (often fetid) from the navel. 
There may be added symptoms of disease of the liver, lungs, heart, or 
bowels, on which we need not here delay. The important point is to 
determine the condition of the navel in all such cases of diseased and 
swollen joints beginning in the first month of life, and in all cases of 
general stiffness, for beside the diseases of the internal organs there 
may be abscesses formed among the muscles of the trunk, though the 
joints appear sound. Cases of this kind, if they do not speedily die, 
tend to become emaciated and perish later in a state of weakness and 
exhaustion. 

Prevention must begin with the purity of the buildings and the navel, 
as noted in the last article. 

Treatment is in the main antiseptic. The slighter forms may be 
painted daily with tincture of iodine; or an ointment of biniodide of 
mercury (1 dram) and lard (2 ounces) may be rubbed on the affected joints 
daily until they are blistered. In case of swellings containing matter 
this may be drawn off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe and 
the following solution injected: Conrpound tincture of iodine, 1 dram; 
distilled (or boiled) water, 2 ounces. Internally the calf may take 5 
grains quinia twice daily and 15 grains hyposulphite of soda, or 20 
grains salicylate of soda three times a day. 

DMBILICAL HERNIA — BREACH AT THE NAVEL. 

This may exist at birth from imperfect closure of the muscles around 
the opening; it may even extend backward for a distance from two 
sides failing to come together. Apart from this the trouble rarely 



272 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

appears after the calf has been some time on solid food, as the paunch 
then extends down to the right over the navel, and thus forms an 
internal pad preventing the protrusion of intestine. 

The symptoms of umbilical hernia are a soft swelling at the navel, 
with contents that usually gurgle on handling, and can be entirely 
returned into the abdomen by pressure. The diseases of the navel 
hitherto considered have not gurgling contents, and can not be com- 
pletely returned into the abdomen. The only exception in the case of 
the hernia is when the walls of the sack have become greatly thickened; 
these will, of course, remain as a swelling after the bowel has been 
returned; and when the protruding bowel has contracted permanent 
adhesions to the sac it is impossible to return it fully without first sev- 
ering that connection. 

Treatment is not always necessary. A small hernia, like an egg y in a 
new-born calf, will usually recover of itself as the animal changes its 
diet to solid food and has the paunch fully developed as an internal pad. 

In other cases apply a leather pad of 8 inches square attached around 
the body by two elastic bands connected with its four corners, and an 
elastic band passing fom its front border to a collar encircling the neck, 
and two other elastic bands from the neck collar along the two sides of 
the body to the two bands passing up over the back. (Plate xxiv, 
Fig. 6.) 

For small hernias nitric acid may be used to destroy the skin and 
cause such swelling as to close the orifice before the skin is separated. 
For a mass like a large goose-egg one-half ounce of the acid may be 
rubbed in for three minutes. No more must be applied for fifteen days. 
For large masses this is inapplicable, and with too much loss of skin the 
orifice may fail to close and the bowels may escape. 

The application of a clamp like those used in castration is a most 
effective method, but great care must be taken to see that all the con- 
tents of the sack are returned so that none may be inclosed in the 
clamp. (Plate xxiv, Fig. 7.) 

Another most effective resort is to make a saturated solution of com- 
mon salt, filter and boil it, and when cool inject under the skin (not 
into the sack) on each side of the hernia a dram of the fluid. A band- 
age may then be put around the body. In ten hours an enormous 
swelling will have taken place, pressing back the bowel into the abdo- 
men. When this subsides the wound will have closed. 

DROPSY OF THE NAVEL. 

A sack formed at the navel, by contained liquid accumulated by rea- 
son of sucking by other calves, is unsightly and sometimes injurious. 
After making sure that it is simply a dropsical collection it may be 
deeply punctured at various points with a large-sized lancet or knife, 
fomented with hot water and then daily treated with a strong decoc- 
tion of white-oak bark. 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 273 

THE BLUE DISEASE — CYANOSIS. 

This appearing in the calf at birth is due to the orifice between the 
two auricles of the heart (foramen ovale) remaining too open, allowing 
the nonaerated (venous) blood to mix with the aerated (arterial) blood, 
and it is beyond the reach of treatment. It is recognized by the blue- 
ness of the eyes, nose, mouth and other mucous membranes, the cold- 
ness of the surface, and the extreme sensitiveness to cold. 

CONSTIPATION. 

At birth the bowels of the calf contain the meconium, a tenacious, 
gluey, brownish-yellow material largely derived from the liver, which 
must be expelled before they can start their functions normally. The 
first milk of the cow (colostrum, beestings), rich in albumen and salts, 
is nature's laxative to expel this now offensive material, and should 
never be withheld from the calf. If, for lack of this, from the dry 
feeding of the cow, or from any other cause, the calf is costive, strain- 
ing violently without passage, lying down and rising as in colic, and 
failing in appetite, no time should be lost in givin g relief by an ounce 
dose of castor oil, assisting its action by injections of soapsuds or oil. 
Whatever meconium is within reach of the finger should be carefully 
removed. It is also important to give the cow a sloppy laxative diet. 

INDIGESTION. 

This may occur from many different causes, as costiveness, a too 
liberal supply of milk; too rich milk; the furnishing of the milk of a 
cow long after calving to a very young calf; allowing a calf to suck the 
first milk of a cow that has been hunted, driven by road, shipped by 
rail or otherwise violently excited; allowing the calf too long time 
between meals so that impelled by hunger it quickly overloads and 
clogs the stomach; feeding from the pail milk that has been held over 
in unwashed (unscalded) buckets, so that it is fermented and spoiled; 
feeding the milk of cows kept on unwholesome food; keeping the calves 
in cold, damp, dark, filthy or bad smelling pens; feeding the calves on 
artificial mixtures containing too much starchy matters; or overfeeding 
the calves on artificial food that may be appropriate enough in smaller 
amount. The licking of hair from themselves or others, and their for- 
mation into balls in the stomach will cause obstinate indigestion in the 
calf. 

The symptoms are dullness, indisposition to move, uneasiness, eructa- 
tions of gas from the stomach, sour breath, entire loss of appetite, lying 
down and rising as if in pain, fullness of the abdomen, which gives out 
a drumlike sound when tapped with the fingers. The costiveness may 
be marked at first, but soon it gives place to diarrhea, by which the 
offensive matters may be carried off and health restored. In other 
24G97 18 



274 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

cases it becomes aggravated, merges into inflammation of the bowels, 
fever sets in and the calf gradually sinks. 

Prevention consists in avoiding the causes above enumerated, or any- 
other s that may be detected. 

Treatment consists in first clearing away the irritant present in the 
bowels. For this purpose one or two ounces of castor oil with 20 drops 
of laudanum may be given, and if the sour eructations are marked a 
tablespoonful of lime-water or one-fourth ounce calcined magnesia may 
be given and repeated two or three times a day. If the disorder con- 
tinues after the removal of the irritant a large tablespoonful of rennet, 
or 30 grains of pepsin, may be given at each meal along with a tea- 
spoonful of tincture of gentian. Any return of constipation must be 
treated by injections of warm water and soap, while the persistence of 
diarrhea must be met as advised under the article following this. In 
case of the formation of loose hair-balls inclosing milk undergoing 
putrid fermentation temporary benefit may be obtained by giving a 
tablespoonful of vegetable charcoal three or four times a day, but the 
only real remedy for these is to cut open the paunch and extract them. 
At this early age they may be found in the third or even the fourth 
stomach ; in the adult they are confined to the first two, and are com- 
paratively harmless. 

DIARRHEA (SCOURING-) IN CALVES — SIMPLE AND CONTAGIOUS. 

As stated in the last article, scouring is a common result of indiges- 
tion, and at first may be nothing more than an attempt of nature to 
relieve the stomach and bowels of offensive and irritating contents. As 
the indigestion persists, however, the fermentations going on in the 
undigested masses become steadily more complex and active, and what 
was at first the mere result of irritation or suspended digestion comes to 
be a genuine contagious disease, in which the organized ferments (bacte- 
ria) propagate the affection from animal to animal and from herd to herd. 
More than once I have seen such epizootic diarrhea starting on the 
head waters of a creek, and traveling along that stream follow the water- 
shed and attacking the herds supplied with water from the contamin- 
ated channel. In the same way, the disease once started in a cow stable, 
is liable to persist for years, or until the building has been. thoroughly 
cleansed and disinfected. It may be carried into a healthy stable by 
the introduction of a cow brought from an infected stable when she is 
closely approaching calving. Another method of its introduction is by 
the purchase of a calf from a herd where the infection exists. 

In enumerating the other causes of this disease we may refer to those 
noted above as inducing indigestion. As a primary consideration any 
condition which lowers the vitality or vigor of the calf must be accorded 
a prominent place among factors which, apart from contagion, contrib- 
ute to start the disease de novo. Other things being equal, the strong, 
vigorous races are the least predisposed to the malady, and in this 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 



275 



respect the compact form, the healthy coat, the clear eye, and the bold, 
active carriage, are desirable. Even the color of the hair is not unim- 
portant, as in the same herd I have found a far greater number of vic- 
tims among the light colors (light yellow, light brown) than among 
those of a darker tint. This constitutional predisposition to indigestion 
and diarrhea is sometimes fostered by too close breeding, without tak- 
ing due account of the maintenance of a robust constitution, and hence 
animals that are very much inbred need to be especially observed and 
cared for unless their inherent vigor has been thoroughly attested. 

The surroundings of the calf are powerful influences. Calves kept 
indoors suffer to a greater extent than those running in the open air and 
having the invigorating influences of sunshine, pure air, and exercise. 
But close, crowded, filthy, bad- smelling buildings are especially caus- 
ative of the complaint. The presence in the air of carbon-dioxide, the 
product of breathing, and of the fetid gaseous products of decompos- 
ing dung and urine diminish by about one-fourth of their volume the 
life-giving oxygen, and in the same ratio hinder the aeration of the 
blood and the maintenance of vigorous health. Worse than this, such 
fetid gases are usually direct poisons to the animal breathing them, 
for example, sulphuretted hydrogen (hydrogen sulphide 2 SH 2 ), and vari- 
ous alkaloids (ptomaines) and toxins (neutral poisonous principles) pro- 
duced in the filth fermentations. These lower the general health and 
stamina, impair digestion, and by leading to the accumulation in stom- 
ach and bowels of undigested materials they lay the foundation for 
offensive fermentations within these organs, and consequent irritation, 
poisoning, and diarrhea. They farther weaken the system so that it 
can no longer resist and overcome the trouble. 

The condition of the nursing cow and her milk is another potent 
cause of trouble. The food of the cow is important. The influence of 
this is shown in the following tables : 

Becquerel and Vernois. 



Character of feed. 


Water. 


Casein 
and ex- 
tractive 
matter. 


Milk 
sugar. 


Butter. 


Salts. 


Cows on winter feed : 

Trefoil or lucerne, 12-13 pounds; oat straw, 9-10 

pounds; beets, 7 pounds; water, 2 buckets 

Cows on summer feed: 

Green trefoil, lucerne, maize, barley, grass, 2 buckets 


Parts in 
1,000. 
871. 26 

859. 56 

858. 68 
888. 77 
844. 90 


Parts in 
1,000. 
47.81 

54.7 

47.38 
33.81 
35.14 


Parts in 
1,000. 
33.47 

36.38 

35.47 
38.02 
36.90 


Parts in 
1,000. 
42.07 

42.76 

52.54 
33.68 
56.87 


Parts in 

1,000. 
5.34 

6.80 
5.93 


Goat's milk on different feed : 






6.18 





In these examples the deterioration of the milk in casein on the less 
nutritious winter feeding is very marked, although the relative amount 
of butter remains almost unchanged. In the case of the goat the re- 
sult is even more striking, the beet diet giving a very large decrease of 
both casein and butter and an increase of milk sugar. 



276 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



The following table, condensed from the Iowa Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station Bulletin, gives the results in butter and total solids when 
the same cows were fed on different rations in succession. Each cow 
was fed a daily ration of 12 pounds corn fodder and 4 pounds clover 
hay, beside the test diet of (1) 12^ pounds corn and cobmeal, and (2) 
10 pounds sugar meal — a product of the glucose manufacture. This 
special feed was given seven days before the commencement of each 
test period to obviate the effects of transition. The analyses of the 
special rations are given below : 



Constituents. 



Moisture 

Salts 

Tat 

Carbo-hydrates (heat- formers) 

Woody fiber 

Proteids (flesh-formers) 



The great excess of fat and nitrogenous or flesh-forming principles 
in the sugar meal is very evident. 
















Ratio of fat 


Animal. 


Milk. 


Fat. 


Solids. 


Fat. 


Solids. 


to solids not 
fat. 


Grade Shorthorn cow : 


Pounds. 


P.ct. 


Per ct. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 




First period, 21 days, corn and cob meal.. 
Second period, 21 days, sugar meal 


631. 25 


3.43 


11.57 


21.67 


73.02 


422 : 1, 000 


641. 50 


4.04 


12.53 


25.93 


83.38 


476. 2 : 1, 000 


Third period, 21 days, corn and cob meal . 


559. 00 


3.22 


11.86 


17.97 


66.32 


371. 7 : 1, 000 


Grade Shorthorn cow : 














First period, 21 days, corn and cob meal. . . 


601. 75 


3.57 


11.95 


21.56 


72.28 


425. 1 : 1, 000 


Second period, 21 days, sugarmeal 


582. 00 


3.91 


12.37 


22.74 


72.57 


456. 3 : 1, 000 


Third period, 21 days, corn and cob meal . 


527. 00 


3.37 


12.05 


17.78 


63.48 


389.1 : 1,000 


Grade Shorthorn cow : 
















753. 50 


3.97 


12.43 


29.94 


93.67 


469. 8 : 1, 000 


Second period, 21 days, corn and cob meal 


601. 50 


3.15 


11.45 


18.97 


68.89 


380. : 1, 000 


Third period, 21 days, sugar meal 


560. 50 


3.85 


12.16 


21. 58 


68.16 


463. 3 : 1, 000 


Grade Holstein cow: 
















487.50 


4.15 


13.27 


20.25 


64.69 


455. 6 : 1, 000 


Second period, 21 days, corn and cob meal 


379. 00 


3.51 


12.69 


13.30 


48.09 


382. 3 : 1, 000 




371. 50 


3.72 


13.01 


13.95 


48.74 


401. : 1, 000 







Here we see in every instance a marked relative increase of the but- 
ter, and to a less extent of the other milk solids whenever the sugar 
meal— rich in fat and albuminoids — was furnished. The opposite theory 
having been largely taught it becomes needful to thus sustain the old 
and well-founded belief of the dairymen. 

Not only does the richness of the milk vary with the nature of the 
food, but it varies also according to the time of the day when it is 
drawn, the morning milk giving 7£ per cent of cream and the evening 
milk 9£ per cent (Hassall). Boedecker found that the morning milk 
had 10 per cent of solids, while the evening milk had 13 per cent. 
Again, the milk first drawn at any milking is always poorer than the 
last drawn. The first may have only one-half, or in extreme cases one- 
fourth, the cream of the last. Once more, when the cow is in heat the 
milk becomes richer in solids (casein and butter), and contains graii? 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. 277 

ular and white blood-cells like the colostrum, and often disagrees with 
the young animal living on it. Now, while these various modifications 
in the amount of solid matters may prove harmless to a strong and 
vigorous calf, they can easily be the occasion of intestinal disorder in 
a weaker one, or in one with health already somewhat impaired by sick- 
ness, exposure, or unwholesome buildings. The casein of the cow's 
milk coagulates in one solid mass, and is much less easily penetrated 
by the digesting fluids than the fine flaky coagulaof woman's or mare's 
milk. An excess of casein, therefore, thrown on an already overtaxed 
stomach can all the more readily induce disorder. So with butter fat. 
While a most important element in nutrition, it may be present in the 
stomach iu such amount as to interfere with the action of the gastric 
juice on the casein, and with the interruption of the natural stomach 
digestion the fats themselves undergo decomposition with the produc- 
tion of offensive and irritating fatty acids. 

The milk of the very young cow is usually more watery than that of 
the mature animal, and that of the old cow has a greater liability to 
become acid. It varies much with the breed, the Channel Island cattle 
being notorious for the relatively large amount of cream, while the Hol- 
steins, Ayrshires, and Shorthorns are remarkable rather for the amount 
of casein. The milk of cows fed on potatoes and grass is very poor 
and watery; that from cows fed on cabbage or Swedish turnips has a 
disagreeable taste and odor (from the former an offensive liquid has 
been distilled). 

Cows fed on overkept, fermented, and soured rations have acid milk 
which readily turns and coagulates. Thus old, long-kept brewers' grains, 
swill, the refuse of glucose factories, and ensilage which has been put up 
too green, all act in this way. The same may come from disease in the 
cow's udder, or any general disease of the cow with attendant fever, 
and in all such cases the tendency is to rapid change and unwholesome- 
ness. If the milk is drawn and fed from a pail there is the added dan- 
ger of all sorts of poisonous ferments getting into it and multiplying; 
it may be from the imperfect cleansing and scalding of the pail; from 
rinsing the pails with water that is impure; from the entrance of bac- 
terial ferments floating in the filthy atmosphere of the stable, or from 
the entrance of the volatile chemical products of fermentation. 

In addition to the dangers coming through the milk, the calf suffers 
in its digestive powers from any temporary illness, and among others 
from the excitement attendant on the cutting of teeth, and impaired 
digestion means fermentations in the undigested masses and the exces- 
sive production of poisonous ptomaines and toxins. 

Whatever may be the starting or predisposing cause of this malady, 
when once established it is liable to perpetuate itself by contagion and 
to prove a veritable plague in a herd or a district. 

The symptoms of diarrhea may appear so promptly after birth as to 
lead to the idea that the cause already existed in the body of the calf, 



278 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

and it usually shows itself before the end of the second week. It may 
be preceded by constipation, as in retained meconium or by fetid eruc- 
tations and colicky pains, as in acute indigestion. The tail is stained 
by the liquid dejections, which are at first simply soft and mixed with 
mucus with a sour odor, accompanied by a peculiar and characteristic 
fetor (suggesting- rotten cheese), which continually grows worse. The 
amount of water and mucus steadily increases, the normal predomi- 
nance of fatty matters becoming modified by the presence of a consid- 
erable amount of undigested casein, which is not present in the healthy 
feces, and in acute cases death may result in one or two days from the 
combined drain on the system and the poisoning by the absorbed 
products of the decomposition in the stomach and bowels. When the 
case is prolonged the passages, at first five or six per day, increase to 
fifteen or twenty, and pass with more and more straining, so that they 
are projected from the animal in a liquid stream. The color of the 
feces, at first yellow, becomes a lighter grayish yellow or of a dirty 
white (hence the name white scour), and the fetor becomes intolerable. 
At first the calf retains its appetite, but as the severity of the disease 
increases the animal shows less and less disposition to suck, and has 
lost all vivacity, lying dull and listless, and when raised walking weakly 
and unsteadily. Flesh is lost rapidly, the Lair stands erect, the skin 
gets dry and scurfy, the nose is dry and hot, or this condition alter- 
nates with a moist and cool one. By this time the mouth and skin, as 
well as the breath and dung, exhale the peculiar penetrating, sour, 
offensive odor, and the poor calf has become an object of disgust to all 
that approach it. At first, and unless inflammation of the stomach 
and bowels supervene (and unless the affection has started in indiges- 
tion and colic), the belly is not bloated nor painful on pressure, symp- 
toms of acute colicky pains are absent, and the bowels do not rumble, 
nor are bubbles of gas mingled with the feces. The irritant products 
of the intestinal fermentations may, however, irritate and excoriate the 
skin around the anus, which becomes red, raw, and broken out in sores 
for some distance. Similarly the rectum, exposed by reason of the 
relaxed condition of the anus, or temporarily in straining to pass the 
liquid dejection, is of a more or less deep red, and it may be ulcerated. 
Fever, with rapid pulse and increased breathing and temperature, 
usually comes on with the very fetid character of the feces and is 
more pronounced as the bowels become inflamed, the abdomen sore to 
the touch and tucked up, and the feces more watery, and even mixed 
with blood. 

The prevention of these cases is the prevention of constipation and 
indigestion with all their varied causes as above enumerated, the selec- 
tion of a strong, vigorous stock, and above all the combating of conta- 
gion, especially in the separation of the sick from the healthy, and in 
the thorough iDurification and disinfection of the buildings. The cleans- 
ing and sweetening of all drains, the removal of dung heaps, and the 



DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. c 2l§ 

washing and scraping of floors and walls, followed by a liberal applica- 
tion of chloride of lime (bleaching powder), 4 ounces to the gallon, are 
indicated. Great care must be exercised in the feeding of the cow to 
have sound and wholesome food and water, so apportioned as to make 
the milk neither too rich nor too poor, and to her health so that the 
calf may be saved from the evil consequences of poisonous principles 
that may be produced in the body of the cow. The calves should be 
carefully kept apart from all calving cows and their discharges. Simi- 
larly each calf must have special attention to see that its nurse gives 
milk which agrees with it, and that this is furnished at suitable times. 
If allowed to suck it should either be left with the cow or it may be fed 
three times a day. If it comes hungry twice a day it is more likely to 
overload and derange the stomach, and if left too long hungry it is 
tempted to take iu unsuitable and unwholesome food, for which its 
stomach is as yet unprepared. So if fed from the pail it is safer to do 
so three times daily than twice. The utmost cleanliness of feeding- 
dishes should be secured and the feeder must be ever on the alert to 
prevent the strong and hungry from drinking the milk of the weaker in 
addition to their own. In case the cow nurse has been subjected to 
any great excitement by reason of travel, hunting, or carrying, the first 
milk she yields thereafter should be used for some other purpose and 
only the second allowed to the calf. Indeed, one and all of the condi- 
tions above indicated as causes should be judiciously guarded against. 

Treatment will vary according to the nature and stage of the disease. 
When the disease is not widespread, but isolated cases only occur, it 
may be assumed to be a simple diarrhea and is easily dealt with. The 
first object is to remove the irritant matter from stomach and bowels, 
and for this 1 or 2 ounces of castor oil may be given according to the 
size of the calf. If the stools smell particularly sour, it may be replaced 
by 1 ounce calcined magnesia, and in any case a tablespoonful or two 
of lime-water must be given with each meal. Great harm is often done 
by giving opium and astringents at the outset. These merely serve to 
bind up the bowels and retain the irritant source of the trouble; liter- 
ally " to shut up the wolf in the sheepfold." When the offending agents 
have been expelled in this way carminatives and demulcent agents may 
be given: One dram anise water, 1 dram nitrate of bismuth, and 1 
dram gum arabic, three times a day. Under such a course the consist- 
ency of the stools should increase until in a day or two they become 
natural. 

If, however, the outbreak is more general and evidently the result of 
contagion, the first consideration is to remove all sources of such con- 
tamination. Test the milk of the cow with blue litmus paper, and if 
it reddens reject the milk of that cow until by sound dry feeding, with 
perhaps a course of hyposulphite of soda and gentian root, her milk 
shall have been made alkaline. The castor oil or magnesia will still 
be demanded to clear away the (now infecting) irritants, but they should 



280 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

be combined with antiseptics, and, while the lime-water and the car- 
minative mixture may still be used, a most valuable addition will be 
found in the following: Calomel 10 grains, prepared chalk 1 ounce, creo- 
sote 1 teaspoonful; mix, divide into 10 parts, and give one four times 
a day. Or the following may be given four times a day : One dram 
Dover's powder, 6 grains powdered ipecacuanha; mix, divide into 10 
equal parts. Injections of solutions of gum arabic are often useful, 
and if the anus is red and excoriated, \ dram of copperas maybe added 
to each pint of the gummy solution. All the milk given must be boiled, 
and if that does not agree, eggs made into an emulsion with barley- 
water, may be substituted. Small doses (tablespoonful) of port wine 
are often useful from the first, and as the feces lose their watery char- 
acter and become more consistent, tincture of gentian in doses of two 
teaspoonfuls may be given three or four times a day. Counterirritants, 
such as mustard, ammonia, or oil of turpentine, may be rubbed on the 
abdomen when that becomes tender to the touch. 

OTHER AILMENTS OF THE CALF. 

Among these may be named several congenital imperfections, such as 
imperforate anus, vulva, or prepuce, which are to be recognized by the 
inability to pass dung or urine, in spite of straining, and the formation 
of swellings in the anus, vulva, or sheath. Each must be carefully 
incised with the knife, taking care not to injure the muscles which cir- 
cumscribe the respective openings. Also tongue-tie, in which the thin 
flaccid mucous membrane passing from the median line of the lower 
surface of the tongue binds the latter too closely to the floor of the 
mouth and renders the tongue unfit for gathering in the food in after 
life. This must be cut with knife or scissors so as to give the tongue a 
reasonable amount of liberty. 

Aphtha or Thrush is another trouble of the sucking calf, showing 
itself as a white curdy elevation on the tongue, lips, cheeks, or gums, 
and when detached leaving a raw, red, angry surface. It is due to the 
growth of a vegetable parasite long recognized as the O'idium albicans, 
but which Grawitz identifies as the Mycoderma vini. It is easily 
removed by rubbing with powdered borax, but inasmuch as other colo- 
nies are likely to start either in the mouth or lower down in the 
pharynx, gullet, or stomach, it is well to give a dose of one-half dram 
of hyposulphite of soda in water day by day for several days. 

Rickets is not a common disease in calves, and comes on, if at all, 
later than those we have been considering. It consists in softening 
and friability of the bones from a deficiency of lime salts, and appears 
to be mainly connected with an inherited weakness of constitution, 
unsuitable feeding, cold, close, damp buildings, and other conditions 
inimical to health. The prevention and treatment of rickets consists 
essentially in the improvement of the digestion and general health; 
hence sunshine, open air, exercise, nourishing food, and tonics are indi- 
cated. 



BONES-DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 



By the late V. T. ATKINSON, V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, Wisconsin State University, ex-State Veterinarian, 

Wisconsin, etc. 



To facilitate the study of diseases of bones and the accidental injuries 
to which they are exposed, some knowledge of the skeleton is advisable. 
The skeleton of the adult ox is made up of the following- number of bones : 

Spinal column 43 

Of the head 28 

Of the chest 27 

Of the shoulder 2—1 on each side. 

Of the arm 2 — 1 on each side. 

Of the fore arm 4 — 2 on each side. 

Of the fore foot 40 — 20 on each side. 

Of the pelvis 2 — 1 on each side. 

Of the thigh 2 — 1 on each side. 

Of the leg 6 — 3 on each side. 

Of the hind foot 38 — 19 on each side. 

Without attempting to burden the reader with the technical names 
and a scientific classification of each, I deem it desirable to describe 
some of the characteristics of forms in general, and of a few classes 
into which they may be divided, leaving the special study of individual 
bones to the illustrations of the skeleton (Plate xxv), which will serve 
better than any amount of writing to fix in the mind of the reader the 
location, relation, and function of each one. In early fetal life the 
place of bone is supplied by temporary cartilage, which gradually 
changes to bone. For convenience of study, bones may be said to be 
composed of two elementary constituents — the organic or animal and 
the inorganic or earthy. In young animals the former predominates; 
with increasing years the relative proportions of the two change, so 
that when advanced age is reached the proportion of inorganic far ex- 
ceeds the organic. The gradual change with advancing years from 
organic to inorganic has the effect of rendering the bone harder and more 
brittle, and though it is stronger the reparatory process is slower 
when injury does occur. 

The bones are nourished in two ways : first, from the outside through 
their covering, called the periosteum — the thin strong membrane that 

281 



282 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

covers every part of the bone except at the joints — and, second, from 
within through the minute branches of blood-vessels, which pass into 
the bones through holes {foramen) on their surface and are distributed 
in the soft structure {medulla) of the inside. The structure of the bone 
is divided into two parts: the compact or hard material of the outside, 
which gives strength and is more abundant in the shafts of long bones; 
and the cancellated softer tissue of the inside, which affords accommo- 
dation to the blood vessels necessary for the nourishment of that part 
of the structure. 

In shape bones are divided into three classes : long, flat, and irregu- 
lar. The long bones are the ribs and those mostly found in the limbs, 
the flat bones in the head, the shoulder and the pelvis, and the irregu- 
lar in the spinal column and the bones of the head. 

DISEASES OF BONES. 

The diseased conditions fouud in bones are classified briefly as fol- 
lows: Inflammation of the structure of the bones {ostitis), which may 
be either acute or chronic, and may involve the whole extent of the 
bone affected, or maybe confined to only a portion of it; inflammation 
of the covering of the bone {periostitis) • formation of tumor or enlarge- 
ment on the surface of a bone {exostosis), which is liable to occur in any 
part of the bone covered with periosteum, and is a common result of 
inflammation of that membrane, which, when it occurs in the neighbor- 
hood of a joint and involves two or more bones, is likely to result in their 
union {anchylosis). The inflammatory condition sometimes assumes an 
ulcerated form {caries), which from interrupted nutrition of the part 
deprived of the blood necessary to its nourishment occasionally dies, 
and becoming separated from the mam portion of the bone, acts as a 
foreign body {necrosis). Soft bones {mollities ossium) is the condition 
found in young animals in which the proportion of inorganic or earthy 
matter is too small to give the necessary stability, so that the bones,, 
particularly of the limbs, bend. Rickets or bending of the bones arises 
from this condition. In some cases the long bones of the limb are too 
weak at birth to support the weight of the animal, and temporary splints 
carefully padded and wrapped on with soft bandages become necessary. 
Hard bones {fragilitas ossium) is the condition opposite to that last 
described, and occurs in old animals, where through deficiency of ani- 
mal or organic matter the bones become unduly hard and brittle, ren- 
dering them more liable to fracture and more difficult to unite when 
such an accident occurs. With this little introduction, which seems 
almost indispensable, we will proceed at once to the consideration of 
accidents. 

SPRAINS. 

The most common accident occurring to bones and joints is a sprain 
of the ligaments uniting the bones, or the tendons uniting the muscles 



BONES DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 283 

and bones. A sprain is the result of a sudden forcing of a joint in an 
unnatural direction; or, if in a natural direction, beyond the power of 
the ligament or tendon to properly restrain it, so that part of the fibers 
of either are ruptured. When such an accident occurs pain is imme- 
diately inflicted, varying in degree with the extent of the injury, which 
is soon followed by swelling, with more or less heat and tenderness. 
If the seat of the injury be in any of the limbs lameness is likely to be 
the result. Of the causes of sprain, slipping on ice or a wet floor, 
playing or fighting with another animal are the most common. 

Sprain of the shoulder joint. — This is likely to occur from any of the 
causes mentioned above or from the animal slipping suddenly in a rut 
or hole. When such an accident occurs sudden lameness will attract 
attention. The animal will be noticed to drag the leg when walking, 
at each step carrying it in a circular direction, outward and forward. 
The leg should be carefully examined, pressure over the joint causing 
the animal to evince pain. If the person making the examination is in 
doubt it is well to make a comparison between the shoulders by press- 
ing first on one and then the other. After such an accident the animal 
should be tied up so as to limit as far as possible the use of the injured 
joint. Soft food should be given with a view to keeping the bowels 
acting freely. The first part of the treatment may consist of an appli- 
cation of extract of witch-hazel twice a day, freely applied around the 
injury. Should the lameness continue after the tenth day good results 
will be obtained from the application of a blister, which should be done 
by carefully clipping the hair off over the joint, including a surface of 
4 or 5 inches in circumference, and rubbing in the following preparation : 

Powdered cantharides £ ounce. 

Spirits of turpentine 2 drams. 

Vaseline 1^ ounce. 

The animal's head should be carefully tied to prevent licking the 
blister until the third day. The blistered surface should then be 
smeared with lard or vaseline every other day until the scabs fall off. 
Gentle exercise should be allowed after the fourth or fifth day from the 
application of the blister. If the lameness still remains the blister may 
be repeated in three weeks or a month. 

Sprain of the Fetloclt. — This may occur from misstep when the animal 
is moving rapidly and the twisting or wrenching of the foot is sufficient 
to partially rupture the ligaments which bind the bones together at 
that part. Such an accident also frequently occurs from the foot becom- 
ing fastened in a hole in the floor, and the wrenching is the result of 
the animal's attempt to liberate it. Lameness, followed by swelling of 
the joint and pain when it is handled, or when the animal moves the 
joint, and heat, are the more noticeable symptoms. If the sprain be 
very severe the animal occasionally does not bear its weight on the 
limb. Careful bathing with cold water, followed by the application of 
extract of witch-hazel or tincture of arnica and careful bandaging should 



284 DISEASES OP CATTLE. 

be the immediate treatment. If the lameness has not disappeared by 
the fourth day, the blister advised for the sprain of the shoulder should 
be applied, and the same precautions observed as to tying the animal's 
head and subsequent smearing with vaseline. When a blister is applied 
in this locality the back part of the heel should be first filled with lard 
or vaseline, and care taken to prevent any of the blistering preparation 
from coming in contact with the skin of that part. If this precaution 
is not observed scratches may ensue and prove troublesome. 

Sprain of the hip. — This is likely to result from the animal slipping in 
such a way as to spread the hind feet wide apart. The patient goes 
stiff with the hind legs, or lame with one hind leg, walking with a strad- 
dling gait, and swinging the leg outward as it is carried forward. Ten- 
derness may occasionally be detected on pressure, but owing to the 
heavy covering of muscles outside of the joint this test is not always 
reliable. During the early stages medical treatment is not likely to be 
of much service. After the fourth or fifth day the blister mentioned in 
"Sprain of the Shoulder" may be applied with advantage. 

Sprain of the bade. — Sprain of the back, particularly in the region of 
the loins, is not an uncommon accident among cattle. It is likely to 
occur from the animal slipping with both hind feet sideways so as to 
twist the back ; or the feet slipping violently backward so that great 
stress is thrown on the loins. The patient moves with difficulty, using 
the hind parts in a guarded manner as if afraid of causing severe pain. 
Occasionally if the sprain is severe the animal will rise with difficulty. 
Pressure on the back in the immediate region of the loins causes pain. 
Such cases may be mistaken for paralysis, and in fact in severe cases 
although the nerve supply is not interfered with, the injury to the mus- 
cles and resulting pain is so great that the condition is almost equal to 
paralysis during the early stages of the injury, although likely to be 
attended with more favorable results. Hot applications, as blankets 
wrung out of hot water and changed at short intervals, will be likely 
to afford relief during the earlier stages. Afterwards the cantharides 
blister mentioned in sprain of shoulder may be applied with advantage. 

FRACTURES — BROKEN BONES. 

Bones may be accidentally broken in many ways and from different 
causes. Fractures in general are likely to be produced by external 
force suddenly and violently applied, either directly to the part or at a 
distance, the force being transmitted through the stronger bones until 
it expends itself by breaking a weaker one remote from the seat of the 
injury. Occasionally violent contraction of muscles is sufficient to 
break a bone. Certain bones are more liable to fracture thau others, 
those of the limbs in particular, owing to their exposed position. The 
bones of some animals are more easily fractured than those of others, 
owing to certain predisposing causes, such as age, habit, or hereditary 
constitutional weakness. The bones of an animal advanced in years 



BONES DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 285 

are more subject to fracture because of the preponderance of inorganic 
matter rendering them more brittle. They are also occasionally ren- 
dered liable to fracture by a previously existing diseased condition. 
Fractures are divided into four classes: Partial, simple, compound, and 
comminuted. 

Partial fractures are those which are likely to occur in a young 
animal in which the preponderance of animal matter or the semi-carti- 
laginous condition of the bone renders it tough, so that considerable 
force must be applied before fragments of the bone are dissolved, and 
even then the bone bends, breaking on the side opposite that to which 
the force was applied, after the manner ju which a green stick would 
bend and break. 

Simple fracture is one in which the bone is severed in two parts, 
either in a line directly through the bone, or obliquely, without serious 
injury to the adjoining structures. 

Compound fracture is one in which there is an open wound communi- 
cating with the ends of the broken bones. 

Comminuted fracture is one in which the bone is shattered or divided 
into a number of fragments. 

General symptoms of fracture. — When a fracture of one or more of the 
large bones of a limb occurs, symptoms are sure to be well marked. 
After the accident the animal refuses to touch the foot to the ground, 
and if compelled to move does so with great pain and reluctance. There 
is more or less shortening of the limb, with trembling of the muscles in 
the vicinity of the injury, deformity, and increased mobility, so that in- 
stead of the natural joints of the limb and the natural muscular con- 
trol of their motion a new joint is formed where the fracture occurred, 
over which the animal has no control. As the leg hangs dependent 
from the body, shortened by the ends of the bones being forced past one 
another from the muscular contraction which invariably takes place, it 
swings in an awkward and unnatural manner, permitting the toe and 
foot to assume positions in their relations to other parts of the body 
which otherwise would be impossible. If the fractured bone is so situ- 
ated that the parts may be moved one upon another, a grating sound, 
known as crepitus, will be .observed. 

General treatment of fractures. — When a fracture occurs the advisa- 
bility of attempting treatment must first be determined. If the animal 
be young, valuable, and of reasonably quiet temperament, and the frac- 
ture not too great in extent, the chances of recovery are fair. On the 
other hand, if the animal should be of little value, irritable, advanced 
in years, and the fracture a serious compound or comminuted one, the 
wiser course would generally be to put the creature out of its misery. 
Having determined to attempt treatment no time should be lost in re- 
storing the parts as nearly as possible to their natural position and 
retaining them there. If the ends of the bones have been drawn past 
one another, they should by firm and continuous tension be drawn out 



286 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

until they again assume the position in which they were before the 
accident. All this can better be done before the swelling — which is 
sure to result — takes place. If the swelling has occurred before the 
injury is noticed do not attempt to treat it, but proceed at once to treat 
the fracture as though the swelling were not present, for no step can 
be taken toward recovery until the ends of the bone have been restored 
to proper position. When that is done and proper appliances have 
been used to prevent them from being again misplaced, the swelling, 
which is the result of irritation, will be relieved. In selecting the appli- 
ances to be used in the treatment of fracture, the judgment and inge- 
nuity of the operator are of much importance. Splints, made of wood 
shaped to fit the limb, and padded with soft material where they come 
in contact with bony prominences, and held in position by means of 
bandages, are the oldest method, and with some are still the most 
popular. The fracture-pads used in human surgery, and for sale in 
surgical depots, are very convenient. After being dipped in water 
they may be molded to fit the limb and be retained by means of ban- 
dages. Heavy sole leather is also used after being soaked in warm 
water and molded to the shape of the limb and holes cut in it to fit 
over any sharp irregularities in the natural shape of the bones. Gutta- 
percha sheets are also used and answer well. They are prepared and 
used in the same way as the leather. 

Another, and perhaps the simplest of all methods, is the application 
of a plaster ot Paris bandage, which is made as follows : Strips of thin 
cheese-cloth, 3 inches wide and 8 or 9 feet long, are laid flat on a board 
and on them is spread a layer of plaster of Paris about one-eighth of an 
inch thick, then starting at one end rolling carefully so as to gather the 
plaster in between the layers of the bandage. It is, of course, impor- 
tant that the cloth be thin and the plaster of Paris fresh and active. 
After preparing four or five of such bandages the operator is ready to 
dress the fracture, which, after the parts have been brought into posi- 
tion, should be done by covering all that part of the limb to which the 
plaster of Paris bandage is to be applied with a single layer of the dry 
bandage, letting it extend both above and below the part to which the 
plaster of Paris bandage is to be applied and including under the folds 
of the dry bandage at each end a layer of absorbent cotton, which is 
intended to form a pad to prevent the ends of the plaster of Paris 
bandage from chafing the skin beneath. When this is done one of the 
plaster of Paris bandages should be placed in a vessel of water and 
allowed to remain till the air-bubbles have ceased to arise from it, which 
will generally indicate that it is soaked through. Then taking it in the 
hand wind it carefully around and around the limb, unrolling the band- 
age as it is wound around the limb, occasionally smoothing down the 
plaster of Paris. Should it form roughly or in ridges the hand may be 
dipped in water to impart increased moisture while doing so. When 
about finished with one bandage place another one in the water so that 



BONES DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 287 

the winding operation may be continued without delay. The bandages 
should be applied till the cast is from one-half to three-quarters of an 
inch thick; then gently restraining the animal for one-half or three- 
quarters of an honr till the plaster is hardened. Any of the appliances 
used should be so applied as to absolutely prevent any motion of the 
detached parts. If the fracture is near a joint it is generally best to 
include the joint in the appliance. The part of the limb below the 
bandage should be carefully and firmly wrapped with an ordinary cot- 
ton bandage all the way from the plaster bandage down to the hooi. 
This last bandage will tend to prevent swelling, which is likely to occur; 
the result of the dependent position in which the animal is forced by 
nature to keep the injured limb. When plaster of Paris bandages are 
applied to a compound fracture the injured part may be previously 
dressed with a small thick pad of cotton immediately over the wound. 
In applying the bandage the operator may with a little care so arrange 
it as to keep the folds of the bandages off the cotton, or have only a 
thin layer over it, which may be easily cut out and the cotton removed, 
leaving a convenient opening through which to dress the wound with- 
out removing the bandage. The ends of the bandage or other appliance 
should be carefully watched to see that the skin does not become 
chafed, particularly at the lower end. If the bandage should become 
weak or broken at any part it may be strengthened without removal by 
applying other bandages immediately over it. If swelling has taken 
place before the bandage has been applied there is likely to be some 
loosening as it disappears, and even without the swelling there is likely 
to be a tendency of the bandage to slide downward. This may be over- 
come by fastening it to a suspender attached to a surcingle or passed 
over the body and attached to the opposite leg. If the looseness can 
not be overcome in this way the space may be filled by pouring in 
a thin paste of plaster of Paris. A better method, however, is to 
remove the bandage and apply another. Owing to the hardness of 
the bandage it will be removed with some difficulty. A deep groove 
should be cut down completely through it on the opposite sides. This 
may be done with a chisel and a small hammer, if the bandage is care- 
fully held by an assistant so that the concussion of the blows is not 
transmitted to the injured bones. The patient should have a roomy 
stall and should be tied by the head to prevent any attempts to move 
around. In some cases slings have been used. Ordinarily, however, 
they are not satisfactory in cattle practice, and if applied should only 
be for a few days at a time and with a view to lessen the animal's dis- 
position to lie down, rather than to prevent it. When they are used 
continuously the pressure on the abdomen is likely to interfere with 
digestion and the general health of the animal. 

Modes of union. — The animal should be kept as quiet as possible and 
given such food as will have a tendency to keep the bowels slightly 
relaxed, The success of the operation will depend chiefly on the skill 



288 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

of the operator, but not alone in the selecting and use of the appliances ; 
for as much attention must be given to subsequent management. The 
patients are unreasonable, and a single awkward motion may undo the 
work of weeks so far as the union of the parts of the bone is concerned. 
It takes place after the same process and, if the conditions are favor- 
able, with greater rapidity than in the human being. The injury that 
caused the fracture is almost sure to have extended to some of the 
adjacent tissues, and even though the fracture may be of the simplest 
type there is almost sure to be considerable hemorrhage around the 
ends of the broken bone. This, however, is unimportant if the skin 
remains intact, unless a very large vessel should be injured, or the 
fracture should open some of the important cavities of the body, in 
which case a fatal hemorrhage might result. If, on the other hand, the 
fracture be a compound one, the external opening furnishes a fertile field 
for the lodgment of disease-producing germs. Unless great care is exer- 
cised in such cases a suppurative process is likely to be established 
which will seriously interfere with if not entirely arrest the process of 
union between the bones ; or it may become so serious as to endanger 
the general health of the animal and even be attended with fatal 
results. This last danger is greater where the injury has occurred to 
the bones of the arm or thigh. In such cases, owing to the dense cov- 
ering of fascia which ensheathes the muscular covering, pus is likely 
to be imprisoned, and burrowing downward saturate the whole struc- 
ture, not only endangering the limb, but, being likely to be reabsorbed, 
may set up blood-poisoning and seriously interfere with the general 
health of the patient, even to causing death. In order as far as possi- 
ble to prevent such an unfortunate complication the wound should be 
carefully cleansed with a mild solution of carbolic acid, then dusted 
over with iodoform before the bandages are applied, and cleansed and 
dressed daily in the same way. After dressing always cover with 
absorbent cotton. In the early process of union an exudation of lymph 
takes place, which is at first fluid, gradually becoming thicker and 
firmer till it forms a callus in the shape of a ring or ferrule surround- 
ing the detached portions of the bone, known as the external or 
ensheathing callus. It occasionally happens that this callus onlyforms 
at the ends of the bones, filling the spaces that exist between them, 
when it is known as the intermediate callus. The process of union 
may be divided into five stages: In the first stage, including the first 
eight days, the detached portions of the bone and the sharp projections 
that are not sufficiently nourished are absorbed ; the blood which 
escaped into the surrounding tissues, the result of the injury, is grad- 
ually absorbed and the effused lymph which is ultimately to constitute 
the temporary cartilage takes its place. In the second stage, from the 
tenth to the twentieth day, the tumor or callus is formed and fibro- 
cartilage is developed inside and around the exposed end of the bone. 
In the third stage, extending from the twentieth to the fortieth or fif- 



BONES— DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 289 

tieth day, according to age and strength of the animal, the fibro-car- 
tilaginous structure undergoes a change and is gradually converted 
into bone, forming a ferule on the outside and a plug on the inside, 
which serve to hold the part in position. In the fourth stage, extend- 
ing to about the sixth month, the whole of the new structure is con- 
verted into bone. The fifth stage, extending up to the end of the first 
year, the callus is absorbed, being no longer necessary, and the connec- 
tion between the cavities of the two bones is again established. 

Common complications. — The process of union just described is healthy 
and normal. Diseased conditions may at any time supervene during 
the treatment and render the operation unsuccessful. In the case of 
compound fracture, the open wound communicating with the ends of 
the bones, a septic condition is apt to arise which may become so seri- 
ous as to endanger the animal's life and bring about conditions which 
in human surgery would indicate amputation. Although that opera- 
tion is not a general one in veterinary practice, there is no reason why 
it should not be attempted as a last resort, particularly if the animal 
be valuable, or one whose existence is necessary in order to perpetuate 
some valuable strain. Even in the simplest form of fracture, if the 
splints or bandages are improperly applied and the fractured bone left 
so loosely guarded that the broken ends move one upon another, the 
formation of the calluses previously described is likely to be interfered 
with, and in place of a strong, rigid, and healthy union a formation of 
elastic cartilage is the result. This false structure unites the broken 
ends of the bones in such a way that they move one upon another, 
depriving the bone of its stability and usefulness. When once the 
healthy process of union is interrupted in the manner just described, it 
is with great difficulty that it can be again established. It no longer 
does any good to continue the restraining power; in fact, the change 
of the temporary cartilage into bone is more likely to be reestablished 
if the parts move violently upon one another for a short time so as to 
set up and renew the process of inflammation. Then if the restraint 
be again applied there is some chance of union. In order as far as 
possible to avoid this danger, care should be exercised that the band- 
age fits closely and that it is kept on till there is no longer any danger 
but that a perfect union has taken place. It is impossible to say at 
just what time the splints or bandages can safely be removed. In a 
young and healthy animal of quiet temperament, where the parts have 
been firmly held in position throughout the whole time, from thirty to 
forty days may be regarded as reasonably safe. Under more unfavor- 
able conditions as to age, vitality, and restraint, the period had better 
be extended up to sixty days if the general condition of the animal is 
such as to permit of so long a continuance. After the appliance has 
been removed the animal should be allowed to stand quiet for a few 
days, then given very gentle exercise, gradually increased over a period 
of a week or ten days, by which time the patient will be so far recovered 
g4697 19 



290 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

as to be placed in pasture. It should, however, be alone for a time, so 
as not to take any chance of injury from fighting or other accidents 
that associations with other animals might involve. 

Special fractures. — Of the special fractures liable to occur that of the 
horn is perhaps the most common. It is always the result of violent 
mechanical means, such as blows, injury occurring while fighting, or 
from the animal getting its head locked in some manner while feeding 
from a rack. When it occurs there are two ways in which the injury 
is likely to affect the animal. First and most common, the horny crust 
is likely to be stripped from the bony projection which it covers. Sec- 
ond, the crust and bone may both be broken or bent down, the fracture 
occurring in that case at the root of the horn and involving part of the 
bones of the head in the immediate vicinity. In the first case, where 
the horny covering is knocked off, little attention is necessary. The 
animal may be relieved from suffering by smearing the stump with pine 
tar and wrapping it in cloth. If the core is much lacerated perhaps it 
would be better to amputate. The necessity for such an operation must 
be determined by the condition of the injury, influenced to some extent 
by the ideas of the owner on the subject. When the operation is per- 
formed it should be done with a sharp, fine-toothed saw, and by sawing 
the horn off close enough to include a little of the skin and hair around 
its base. The practice of dehorning has grown popular in many parts 
of the country. It is a simple operation, and, although attended with 
considerable immediate suffering, does not produce serious constitu- 
tional disturbance. The advisability of performing the operation on 
all cattle is a question of expediency and must be justified by the ex- 
pectation of benefit on the part of the feeder. If the horn should be 
broken so that the core and crust are bent out of shape without the 
detachment of one from the other, it may be restored to its normal 
position and retained there by means of a splint made to fit across the 
back of the head, so as to be laced to both horns, the sound horn serv- 
ing to hold the broken one in position. Such a splint may be fastened 
on by means of either wire or cord and allowed to remain six weeks or 
two months. 

Fractures of the bones of the face. — These occasionally occur, and when 
over the cavities of the nose produce depression, disfigurement, and 
impeded respiration, owing to the lessening of the caliber of the nasal 
passages. When such an accident occurs the depressed bone should be 
gently forced back to place by introducing the finger in the nostril, or 
if the fracture be too far up for this, a probe may be passed and the 
parts retained by placing a plaster of thin leather or strong canvas 
smeared with tar immediately over it, extending out to the sound sur- 
roundings, taking care to imbed the hair over the fractured portion in 
the tar of the plaster so it will be firmly held and prevented from again 
becoming depressed. If only one nostril should be involved the 
depressed xjortion may be held in position by packing the nostril on 



BONES DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 291 

that side with absorbent cotton. This practice, however, has the 
objection of giving the animal great discomfort, and in some cases a 
disposition to aggravate the injury. 

Fracture of the skull or cranium. — Fractures of the bones forming the 
cavity in which the brain is situated are, owing to their strength, com- 
paratively rare among cattle. Such an accident can only be the result 
of external violence, and it is hardly possible that it could occur with- 
out some fragment of the broken bone pressing upon the brain so as to 
cause coma, other severe nervous derangement, or even death. If the 
animal survives the first shock the efforts should be directed toward 
relieving the pressure, which maybe done by making an opening in the 
bone (trephining) and with a hook drawing the depressed part out- 
ward. Interference is not so likely to be attended with good results as 
to be warranted in all-cases. The effects of a very severe shock which 
may not have produced a fracture, although the symptoms were alarm- 
ing, will in many cases pass off, leaving the animal in abetter condition 
than if an operation had been performed. 

Fracture of the lower jaw. — This occasionally occurs, and is more 
likely to result from the kick of a horse than from any other cause. 
The front part of the jaw is likely to be split or shattered in any direc- 
tion in which the force may have been applied. Bloody discharges 
from the mouth and failure to eat or ruminate are symptoms most 
likely to attract attention. The treatment is simple, and consists of 
first removing detached pieces of bone, then drawing the parts together 
and retaining them by means of pieces of copper wire fastened around 
the teeth, and feeding the animal on sloppy food until recovery takes 
place. The wound should be dressed once or twice a day with a 3 per 
cent solution of carbolic acid, forced gently in with a syringe so as to 
remove any food which may have become impacted and interfere with 
the healing process. 

Fracture of the vertebras or spinal column. — This is not so common 
among cattle as other animals. If the fracture should be through the 
body of the bone there is likely to be pressure on or laceration of the 
spinal cord, causing paralysis of all parts posterior to the seat of injury. 
Fractures of the prominences on the vertebras occasionally occur with- 
out interfering with the canal in which the spinal cord is located. 
Such accidents are likely to pass unnoticed, for although the animal 
may suffer considerable pain, it is not likely to be manifested in such a 
way as to attract attention, and the deep covering of muscles serves to 
effectually conceal the injury. When the fracture occurs in the upper 
part of the neck, paralysis of the muscles used in respiration must 
result, and death from asphyxia very shortly ensues. The more com- 
mon accident is to the loins, and when a fracture of the body of the 
vertebras occurs in this region so as to produce pressure on the spinal 
cord, paralysis of the hind legs and quarters is the result. Diagnosis 
of such an accident is more difficult than in the case of any other frac- 



292 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

ture. The parts can not be moved one upon another so that crepitus 
is noticeable. The heavy coating of muscles conceals irregularities of 
shape, which would otherwise be likely to attract attention. About 
the only reliable symptom is paralysis or loss of use and sensation of 
the parts posterior to the injury; careful examination may reveal the 
seat of the injury. If it was the result of a blow there is likely to be 
some abrasion of the skin. The diagnosis is only important as an aid 
in determining the proper course to pursue. If paralysis is present 
and a depression or irregularity of the spinal column is so apparent as 
to leave no doubt of the existence of a fracture, the only alternative is 
to destroy the animal, for of recovery there can be no hope. If, on the 
other hand, the paralysis is incomplete, and there is no depression or 
irregularity of the spinal column or other evidence of fracture, the 
patient should be made as comfortable as possible by being placed in a 
well-bedded box stall and a few days permitted to elapse before the 
case is abandoned. The symptoms last described might possibly be 
the result of a severe strain of the muscles of the loins, in which case 
an improvement will soon be noticeable. 

Fractures of the pelvis. — The pelvis or bony framework which gives 
shape to the posterior part of the body is liable to fracture in many 
ways. A common one is by a separation of the two bones which con- 
stitute the whole pelvis along the bottom and center line (symphysis 
pubis). In early life the two bones are separate and distinct. The 
union between them which is at first cartilaginous undergoes a change 
and is converted into bone; so that in adult life the whole pelvis is 
practically one bone. The point on which the two bones are united is 
weaker than the adjoining parts of the bone. When an animal slips 
violently, spreading the legs wide apart, the weaker materials give way 
and the bones are divided. If the accident is noticed when it occurs it 
is likely to throw light on the nature of the injury. The animal will 
be immediately noticed going stiff behind, the legs being spread apart. 
Further examination may be made by introducing the hand, previously 
carefully oiled, into the rectum or vagina and pressing down along the 
central line, which will cause the patient to evince acute pain. In this 
case no appliance can be used to advantage. The animal should be tied 
in a stall until the parts become reunited and the lameness disappears. 

Fracture of the posterior part of the bone (ischium) which forms the 
point of the buttocks occasionally occurs. The buttock on the injured 
side will be less prominent than the other. Careful manipulation will 
generally move the parts so that crepitus may be recognized. If the 
fracture is through the posterior part of the bone it is unimportant and 
deserving of no more attention than placing the animal in such a posi- 
tion as to insure it against subsequent injury until the bones are united. 
Some distortion is likely to result, but not sufficient to. warrant inter- 
ference. 

Fracture through the body of the bone on a, line with the hip joint 



BONES DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 293 

(acetabulum) occasionally though rarely occurs, and is nearly always 
associated with dislocation of the hip joint and the forcing of the head 
of the upper bone of the leg (femur) upward, far out of its place. The 
violent contraction of powerful muscles of the hip renders it impossible 
to reduce the dislocation, and even if it were possible the fractured pel- 
vis could not be held in position, so that the case becomes at once a 
hopeless one. It may be recognized by the animal standing on three 
legs, the leg on the iDJured side seeming shorter than its fellow and 
hanging pendulous, the muscles of the hip violently contracted and 
hard to the touch. The animal evinces great pain when the limb is 
moved. There is likely to be some apparent distortion in the relations 
between the point of the hip and the point of the buttock. This will be 
more readily noticed by comparing the injured side with the other. The 
parts may be moved so as to produce crepitus. The examination may 
be completed by introducing the oiled hand into the vagina or rectum 
when the two sides of the pelvis wdl reveal well marked differences. 

Fracture of the point of the hip.— The anterior and external part of 
the pelvis (ilium), commonly known as the point of the hip, is liable to 
fracture which stock owners describe as "hipping," or being "hipped." 
This accident is likely to be the result of crowding while passing 
through a narrow door, of falling violently on the point of the hip, or 
from a violent blow directed downward and forward against it. The 
lesion generally extends across the flat surface of the bone from its 
outer and posterior edge forward and inward. Distortion is likely to 
be the only noticeable symptom. The detached portion varies in size 
in different cases and with it the resulting deformity. The animal is 
noticed to be slightly lame, but this symptom soon disappears. The 
detached portion of the bone is drawn downward and away from the 
main part by the action of the muscles below, which are so powerful as 
to render return impossible. Bony union between the two parts does 
not again take place, but a cartilaginous hinge, previously described as 
a false joint, supplies the deficiency. The animal suffers very little 
inconvenience, and for practical use may be serviceable as before the 
accident, though the distorted appearance depreciates its value. 

Fracture of the ribs. — Such an occurrence can take place only as the 
result of a direct injury, as from blows or crowding. The posterior 
ribs, being more exposed, are more liable to fracture. Pain in moving, 
slight swelling over the seat of injury, and difficult breathing are obvi- 
ous symptoms. If the fracture be complete, crepitation may be occa- 
sionally noticed by placing the hand flat over the injured part, observ- 
ing carefully the motion as the chest contracts and expands during 
respiration. This symptom is more noticeable when the animal coughs. 
Unless the point of the broken bone penetrates the cavity of the chest 
the fracture is usually unimportant and calls for no treatment other 
than quiet. If the breathing is very labored and attended with much 
pain, motion may be limited by applying a wide bandage firmly around 



294 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the chest. The animal should be restricted iu the amount of food and 
water for a few days, the stomach being kept as nearly empty as possi- 
ble. Sloppy food should be given to encourage, as much as possible, 
free action of the diaphragm in breathing. 

Fractures of bones of the limbs. — On this subject much has been said 
iu the preceding remarks on general fractures. As a rule fracture 
through one of the large bones of the shoulder (scapula) or thigh (femur) 
is very difficult to manage. The j>owerful contraction of the muscles 
and the changing shape of the limb resulting from their action renders 
it impossible to retain the detached parts of the bone in proper position. 
Therefore, though the union should take place, there is almost sure to 
be considerable deformity and more or less lameness. Fracture of the 
arm (humerus) or leg (tibia) is likely to be attended with better results. 
The muscular covering is not so thick, the sheath in which they are 
held is more tense, and the change in the shape of the limb from mus- 
cular action not so noticeable, the muscular force not so great, all of 
which facilitate replacing in position the dislodged ends and retaining 
them. 

Fracture of the lenee (carpus) and hock (tarsus). — Unless it is the 
result of a very violent injury this seldom occurs, and is generally asso- 
ciated with other injury and serious complications. Displacement does 
not generally occur to any considerable extent. The treatment, of 
course, will consist in holding the limb perfectly quiet in a natural 
X^osition, which may be done by the application of long wooden splints 
retained by bandages, or a plaster of Paris bandage. 

Fractures below the knee. — Fracture of the long bone below the knee 
(metacarpus) and hock (metatarsus) is more common. In young animals 
of quiet temperament the treatment of simple fractures here is likely to 
be attended with good results. On the other hand a compound fracture 
in this region becomes a serious matter. The structures which surround 
the bones are so thin that a very small degree of sloughing will expose 
parts of the bones and be likely to lead to serious complications and 
probably fatal results. 

Fractures of bones below the fetlock. — These fractures are compara- 
tively unimportant unless associated with other serious injury. The 
parts can generally be held in position without much difficulty, and 
union generally takes place quite rapidly. 

Appliances. — Of the appliances used in the treatment of the fracture 
of limbs above the knee, splints made of wood or strong leather and 
bandages are likely to serve best. Below the knee plaster of Paris 
bandages are preferable. The writer is well aware that many of the 
standard authors deprecate the use of the latter, but an extensive expe- 
rience leads me to believe that they have many advantages over any of 
the other appliances when used alone, and they may in many ways be 
used with advantage in combination with others. 



BONES DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 295 

.Dislocations. — Luxation or displacement of the bones forming a joint, 
without fracture, is comparatively rare among cattle. It most frequently 
occurs in the stifle joint, where dislocation of the knee-pan (patella) 
takes place. A glance at the skeleton (Plate xxv) will show the rela- 
tions better than they can be described. It will be observed that the 
small irregularly shaped bone (patella) plays on the anterior rounded 
part of the lower end of the hip bone (femur) and between it and the 
upper end of the thigh bone (tibia). The outer ridge on the lower end 
of the thigh bone is less prominent than the inner one, so that displace- 
ment, when it does take place, is by slipping outward. Such an acci- 
dent may occur from direct injury or external force, as a blow, or from 
slipping. When it does occur the symptoms produced are somewhat 
alarming. The animal is unable to draw the leg forward, and either 
stands with it thrown back with the toe pointing downward, or, if it 
should succeed in getting its weight upon it, holds it firmly on the ground, 
fearing to move it. Examination of the outside of the joint will dis- 
close the situation of the patella outside of its proper place. If the 
operator is not familiar with the normal appearance of the joint it is 
well to make a comparison between the injured and the sound one. If 
compelled to move the animal does so with great difficulty, jerking the 
leg which it is unable to bring forward, hopping with the other and par- 
tially dragging the injured one. The treatment. is simple. A rope 
should be applied around the fetlock, the leg drawn forcibly forward by 
an assistant, while the operator carefully manipulates the dislocated 
bone, shoving it inward and forward as the leg is brought forward. If 
successful it slips into its place with a sharp click and the animal steps 
off as though nothing had happened. Unless some precaution is taken 
the accident is liable to recur, as the ligaments have been stretched by 
the dislocation till they no longer hold the bone with that firmness 
necessary to retain it. The animal should be tied and the foot fastened 
forward, so that the animal can just stand on it comfortably, by means 
of a rope or strap around the fetlock, carried forward between the front 
legs around the neck and tied on the breast. Should this accident 
occur more than once it is a good practice to apply a blister around the 
joint, as in the formula recommended in sprain of shoulder, and observe 
the precautions as to restraint and subsequent treatment there recom- 
mended. With this one exception dislocations in the ox occurring inde- 
pendently of other complications are rare. Dislocation with fracture 
may occur in any of the joints, and where one is suspected or discov- 
ered, before treatment is applied, examination should always be made 
for the other. When a fracture occurs in the vicinity of a joint the 
force sufficient to rend the bone is likely to be partly exerted on the 
immediate tissues, and when the bone gives way the structures of the 
joints are likely to be seriously injured. It occasionally happens that 
the injury to the joint becomes the most important complication in the 



296 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

treatment of a fracture. Id order to clearly understand the reason for 
this a few words are necessary in relation to the structure of joints. 

The different pieces constituting the skeleton of the animal body are 
united in such a manner as to admit of more or less motion one upon 
another. In some of the more simple joints the bones fitting one into 
another are held together by the dense structures around them, admit- 
ting of very little or no movement at all, as the bones of the head. In 
other joints the bones are bound together by dense cartilaginous struc- 
tures, admitting of only limited motion, such as the union of the small 
bones at the back part of the knee and hock (metacarpal and metatar- 
sal). In the more perfect form of joint, the power of motion becomes 
complete and the structures are more complex. The substance of the 
bone on its articular surface is not covered with periosteum, but is 
sheathed in a dense thin layer of cartilage, shaped to fit the other sur- 
faces with which it comes in contact (articular). This layer is thickest 
towards its center when covering bony eminences, and is elastic, of a 
pearly whiteness and resisting, though soft enough to be easily cut. 
The bones forming an articulation are bound together by numerous 
ligaments attached to bony prominences. The whole joint is sealed in 
by a band or ribbon-like ligament (capsular ligament) extending around 
the joint and attached at the outer edge of the articular surface, unit- 
ing the bones and hermetically sealing the cavities of the articulation. 
This structure and the articular surface of the bone is covered by a 
thin, delicate membrane, known as the synovial membrane, which 
secretes the joint-oil (synovia). This fluid is viscid and colorless, or 
slightly yellow, and although it does not possess a large amount of fat, 
its character somewhat resembles oil, and it serves the same purpose in 
lubricating the joints that oil does to the joints of an engine. Although 
the tissues of the joint when used in a natural way are able to withstand 
the effect of great exertion, when unnaturally used, as they are very 
delicate and complex, they are liable to inflammatory and other changes 
of a very serious nature. The synovial membrane, and in fact the 
whole structure of the joint, is susceptible to injury and serious inflam- 
matory derangement, and the capsular ligament is liable to be distended 
from excessive secretion of synovia. The latter process may be almost 
noninflammatory, and attended with little inconvenience or importance 
other than a blemish to the animal, which in cattle is not serious. It 
may occur on the back part of the leg above the fetlock or on the inner 
and fore part of the hock, corresponding in its location to windgalls and 
bog spavin of the horse. Continuous support by bandages will gen- 
erally force reabsorption, and as the limb is not subjected to violent 
action, as in the case of the horse, the affection is not so liable to recur. 

Spavin. — Occasionally working oxen that are used in the lumber 
woods and made to pull heavily, with bad footing, are afflicted with 
this. When it occurs lameness is the first symptom. During the early 
stages of the disease the lameness is most severe in the morning and 



BONES DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 297 

disappears after the animal is exercised; it gradually becomes more 
severe as the disease advances, so that when the disease is well estab- 
lished the animal is lame continuously. Shortly after the lameness 
appears a bunch (exostosis) will be noticed on the inner and fore part 
of the affected joint. This bunch differs from bog spavin in that it is 
hard, while bog spavin is soft. It increases in size as the disease 
advances, till the animal is too lame to be used for labor. As the dis- 
ease is always attended with considerable pain there is more or less loss 
of flesh. In the most advanced stage the animal will step with diffi- 
culty, frequently holding the foot from the ground, or if forced to take a 
few steps, stands with it elevated, twitching with pain. In the earlier 
stage of the disease only a small portion of the fore part of the lower or 
second articulation is involved, but the inflammatory process gradually 
extends over the whole surface of the lower joints of the hock. The 
structures of the joint are broken down and the bones are united (anchy- 
losis). This process may include any or all of the three lower joints of 
the hock. The joint of motion which is situated on the lower end of 
the leg bone is seldom involved. Treatment of spavin in the ox, as in 
the horse, is likely to be tedious, and not always resulting in perfect 
cure. Usually it is best to fatten the animal for slaughter. If, how- 
ever, treatment is decided upon, it would be by the application of the 
following blister : 

Powdered cantharides 3 drams. 

Biniodide of mercury 2 drams. 

Vaseline 1£ ounces. 

Clip the hair off and apply over the inner and fore part of the joint, 
covering the surface an inch and a half in every direction from the 
enlargement, or over an area 3 to 4 inches across. Fasten the animal's 
head so that it can not reach the part to lick it; after the third day 
grease with lard every other day until the scabs come off. This blister 
may be repeated every month or six weeks. The lameness will generally 
begin to disappear about the third or fourth month and a more or less 
perfect cure be effected by the sixth or seventh. 

In a case of spavin the cure is not effected by restoring the diseased 
parts to their natural condition, but by uniting the bones and obliter- 
ating the joints. If this union extends over the whole articular surface 
of the joints affected and is sufficiently strong to prevent any motion of 
the bones, the animal will again go sound. The joints that are obliter- 
ated not being those of motion are not important, so that the animal 
suffers no inconvenience in their loss. 

RHEUMATISM. 

Cattle exposed to severe cold or damp weather are likely to suffer 
from this disease, or it may appear as a sequel to some diseases of the 
lungs or skin. Some animals seem to be naturally predisposed to it. 
In its nature it is inflammatory and is more likely to involve the organs 



298 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

of locomotion than any other, though the heart and other internal 
organs are occasionally involved as a secondary result. Primarily it 
appears as an inflammation of joints, ligaments, tendons, or the covering 
of muscles. It is due to a specific condition of the blood in which cer- 
tain irritant properties are developed and lodged and in the fibrous tis- 
sues of the structures named. 

There is some dispute as to what the true nature of the irritant prop- 
erty peculiar to this disease really is. The acid condition of the urine 
has led to the supposition that it is possibly due to lactic acid. In the 
herbivora the acid found is hippuric. As it is likely to be caused by 
impaired action of the skin, there is reason to suppose that it is due to 
the presence in the system of some of the natural constituents of per- 
spiration, either in excessive quantity or in perverted condition. 

It generally appears as a sudden lameness, with noticeable swelling 
around some of the joints of the affected limb, though it is quite likely 
that the swelling will not bear any proportionate relation to the amount 
of pain evinced. 

The disease may be confined to one limb, or more than one may be 
affected. It may appear simultaneously in different parts of the body, 
or after involving one or more parts suddenly disappear and reappear 
in another place, which may be remote from or near to the part first 
affected, which, if the disease is not arrested, is likely to sufl'er from sub- 
sequent attacks. The local symptoms are always accompanied with 
constitutional disturbance of a feverish nature, which usually precedes 
the appearance of the more painful symptoms. The temperature is 
likely to run up from 104° F. to 108° F. In an acute attack the mouth 
will be found hot and dry, the pulse hard, the secretion of urine lessened, 
the urine acid in its character and charged with impurities. The bowels 
are less active, and there is frequently a marked disposition to lie down 
continuously. 

A chronic type of the disease, which may supervene on the acute or 
occur independently, is characterized by the symptoms already men- 
tioned, except that the constitutional disturbance is not likely to be 
present, or, if so, not so marked, nor do the acute local conditions show 
the same tendency to shift from one part to another. 

This inclination to remain fixed in one place has a tendency to bring 
about structural derangement and permanent injury to the parts in- 
volved in the shape of thickening and enlargement of the soft struc- 
tures, or in extreme cases in the formation of bony tumors and the 
obliteration of a joint. 

Treatment. — At the outset a purgative close of Epsom salts should be 
given, which may be from 1 to 1£ pounds for an ordinary-sized cow. If 
the pain is very acute it may be relieved by occasional doses of lauda- 
num or opium, not more than an ounce of the former or a dram of the 
latter, three times a day. When the opium is used care must be taken 
to keep the bowels acting regularly. For this purpose it may be neces- 



BONES DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 299 

sary to give occasional small doses of Epsom salts. In conjunction 
with the above, or alone if it is not deemed necessary to give the opium, 
half-ounce doses of the nitrate or bicarbonate of potash should be given 
three times a day. Great care should be exercised to keep the patient 
comfortable. If unable to stand, a liberal supply of bedding should be 
used to prevent possible injury from bruising and bed-sores. The stall 
should be roomy, so that the patient may move with ease and be per- 
fectly free from moisture, drafts, and sudden changes of temperature. 
The food should be such as will be easily digested — bran mashes, green 
food when it can be procured, and clean Lay. Locally the pain may be 
relieved and the disease checked by the application around the affected 
joint of stimulating liniments or blisters. (See blister recommended for 
use in treatment of spavin.) 




X 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 



By the late Dr. WILLIAM DICKSON, Veterinarian to the State Farmers' Institute 
of Minnesota; revised and completed by Dr. WM. HERBERT LOWE, Super- 
intendent of the United States Quarantine for the port of New York, Garfield, N. J. 



There are fewer surgical operations performed on the cow than on 
the horse. Various causes conduce to this result. Naturally plethoric, 
slow in their motions, and even when at liberty, save under occasional 
exceptional circumstances, singularly averse to active exertion of any 
kind, animals of the ox tribe consequently enjoy a practical immunity 
from a proportion of accidents which in animals of a more buoyant and 
active temperament so frequently entail results demanding surgical 
intervention. Oxen are seldom used nowadays for purposes of draft 
or burden, and even when put to either of these uses the risk of any- 
thing like serious injury is greatly diminished by their deliberate move- 
ment. The nature of their food and their usual environments all tend 
to operate more or less in the same direction. 

There is, however, another and a very material reason. A cow, an 
ox, or any individual of the species, represents to the ordinary owner 
just so much capital — not usually a very large amount — and in the 
event of accident or ailment monetary or utilitarian considerations 
have an important bearing on the question of recourse to professional 
assistance. An ox is but an ox anyhow, and, although the interest of 
his owner sometimes requires to have a sick one treated, the animal 
itself, I fear, is but seldom regarded as possessing much if any claim 
to moral protection, still less to sentimental consideration. If he is 
injured he has got to be mended, but, like a piece of torn currency, how 
does not so much matter. Surely humanity demands kind treatment 
for all animals, and even when compassion and self-interest do not join 
hands the sick or wounded bovine has quite as much claim to all pos- 
sible relief from pain and suffering as the most valuable or highly 
endowed of living creatures. 

The primary object of a work of this kind, therefore, is to treat of the 
best means known to practical science in a style and language so plain 
that an owner will himself be able to come to the assistance of his suf- 
fering dumb dependents, and, in many of the emergencies which occur 
on the farm or the ranch, be able, with the help of the knowledge thus 

m 



302 DISEASES OF CATTLE 

attained, to perform many of the minor operations which may become 
necessary without having to weigh the question of possible cost against 
the economical results to be attained by professional treatment. 

The intention is not by any means to supplant the veterinary prac- 
titioner. It is, on the contrary, the matured result of a deep and earn- 
est desire to benefit the farmer and stock-owner by directing aright his 
well meaning but ofttimes mistaken efforts and those of his employes in 
ministering to the necessities of their suffering charges in those emer- 
gencies which are constantly liable to occur where comx>etent assistance 
is beyond reach. It is to enable him to perform in a rational and effect- 
ive manner minor operations which would in any case be undertaken 
with less intelligence and success than would be likely were the owner 
armed with a certain knowledge of the correct principles on which they 
ought to be conducted. If this work fulfills its mission, as who can 
doubt it will, the efforts at self-help of its readers will be free from bung- 
ling and simple guesswork, while the animals in their charge will be 
material gainers by the change. 

There are, moreover, sundry operations hardly, perhaps, entitled to 
rank as surgical, which are usually performed not always by any means 
in the best possible manner, nor with invariable success by the ani- 
mal's owner or his servants. It will be the writer's endeavor to attempt 
to show how some of them can be performed in such a way as to obtain 
the most favorable results while abridging the animal's pain and peril 
and diverting danger and consequent loss. 

In the performance of any operation upon an animal of the size and 
strength of the ox the first consideration is to secure it in such a man- 
ner as to preclude the possibility of its injuring either itself or those 
taking any part in the operation, for two or more are invariably neces 
sary. The nature and time likely to be occupied by an operation must 
of course largely determine the method to be adopted. 

The majority of operations with which the present chapter is con- 
cerned are usually performed on the ox in a standing position. . To 
secure the animal in this position lay hold of one horn and with the 
disengaged hand grasp the nose, the finger and thumb being intro- 
duced into the nostrils, and press against the cartilage which makes a 
division between them. If this is insufficient the animal should be 
secured to a tree or a post. A very excellent method of restraint is to 
tie a long rope in a slip noose over the horns, pass it around the chest 
just behind the fore legs, taking a half hitch on itself, taking another 
half hitch in frout of the hind limbs, passing the free end under the 
tail, bringing it forward and making it fast either to the head or one of 
the hitches. The head should be raised to the level of the back before 
the final knot is tied, so as to render it too serious and painful a mat- 
ter for him to repeat the first attempt he makes to lower it. Should 
the nature or extent of the operation be likely to take up a considerable 
length of time it is invariably the best plan to throw the animal. In 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 303 

the case of the ox this is very easily done, either by use of horse hob- 
bles should they be at hand, or by the application of a simple rope. If 
the horse hobbles are used they should be fastened on the leg just 
above the fetlocks (ankle joints), as they are in that position less liable 
to come off than if placed around the pastern. 

Of the many ways of applying the rope for this purpose I will only 
describe two, which I consider the best and simplest. First : Take a 
long, strong rope (one which has been used a few times is more flexible), 
double it, and at two or three feet from the doubled end, according to 
the size of the animal, make a knot and pass the collar thus formed over 
the animal's head, allowing it to rest on what would be the collar place 
in a horse, Now pass the ends of the rope between the fore legs, carry 
one around each hind leg just above the fetlock joint, from outside in, 
under itself once, and bring the free ends forward, passing each through 
the collar loop on its own side and bringing the slack back toward and 
beyond the hind quarters. (Plate xxvi, Fig. 2.) 

Two or three stout men should then take hold of each rope and at a 
given signal pull. The animal's hind legs being drawn forward, the 
balance is lost, and if the animal does not fall or lie down he can be 
readily pushed over on his side and secured in the desired position. 
Second: The three half hitches. Take a rope 30 or more feet long, 
make a slip noose at the end, and pass it over the animal's horns, leav- 
ing the knot in the loop between the horns; then pass the rope back- 
ward along the neck to the withers, just in front of which take a half 
hitch on it, passing it along the back, take one half hitch just behind 
the forelegs and a second in front of the hind limbs round the flank. 
(Plate xxvi, Fig. 1.) The free end of the rope is taken hold of by one or 
two assistants while another holds the animal's head. By pulling firmly 
on the rope, or inducing the animal to make a step or two forward while 
steady traction is made on the rope, the beast will quietly lie down, 
when his feet can be secured in the way most convenient for the operator. 

There are numerous other methods, involving more or less complete 
restraint, which may be equally efficacious, but one or other of the ways 
indicated will doubtless be found to fully meet all ordinary cases. 

RINGING THE BULL. 

This is usually and ought always to be done before the calf has at- 
tained sufficient weight or strength to make his restraint a matter of 
serious difficulty. An ordinary halter is usually all that is required, 
the strap being secured to a tree or post. A jointed steel or copper 
ring is ordinarily used. Those made of the latter metal are prefer- 
able. 

The common method of punching a round piece out of the nasal sep- 
tum for the introduction of the ring is, I think, open to objection, as 
portions of the fine nervous filaments are destroyed. The sensibility of 
the parts is thus lessened and the object of ringing to some extent de- 



304 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

feated. The insertion of the ring by means of a trocar and cannla is 
preferable, as the method is not open to this objection. 

For some years I have used a little instrument devised by myself 
which can be made by any worker in metal, consisting of a steel point 
riveted into a short canula made to fit on one end of the ring while 
open. (Plate xxviii, Fig. 11.) When attached to the ring it is easily 
and quickly passed through the septum, the half of the ring following 
as a matter of course. It can then be removed, and the ends of the 
ring brought together and fastened by means of the screw for that pur- 
pose. By this means any animal can readily be ringed by anyone in 
less time than it takes to describe the process ; whereas, by any other 
method which necessitates first puncturing or piercing the septum and 
subsequently introducing the ring, the operation is, even when the 
animal's struggles do not complicate matters, necessarily rendered 
tedious and uncertain by the fact that the openings through the skin 
and cartilage are not in apposition. 

DEHORNING. 

In this and other countries for some years past a heated controversy 
has from time to time been carried on not only as to the advisability of 
dehorning, but also as to the propriety of the proceeding. The advo- 
cates of wholesale removal of horns in many cases exaggerate alike the 
necessity and the advantages accruing from the practice; on the other 
hand, their opponents are backed by the ultra humanitarian who stig- 
matizes the operation as barbarous, or worse. In some countries these 
views are upheld even by courts of law whose legal acumen is able to 
detect in the procedure grave cruelty to animals. 

In this country owners are left to decide matters of this sort for them- 
selves, but a work of this kind would hardly be complete without some 
expression of an opinion on the subject which might be helpful to the 
dubious when the matter comes up for decision. Justly, then, does the 
operation amount to cruelty ? 

I answer distinctly, it does not. Cruelty to animals is defined as the 
infliction of unnecessary pain. Now, the operation of dehorning causes 
pain certainly, as all surgical operations necessarily do, but it is not by 
any means more painful than many other operations (notably castra- 
tion), to which we regularly subject individual animals without a second 
thought. Moreover, the pain is transient as well as slight, and as a 
matter of fact pales into insignificance before the severe and lasting 
torture inflicted as a matter of every-day occurrence by animals upon 
each other when left to wear in confinemert their weapons of offense, 
which, although doubtless of utility in a wild state are in a state of 
domesticity a menace to their companions and a dangerous encumbrance 
to themselves. 

The matter has acquired enhanced importance from the fact that, 
owing to the strenuous efforts made by the U, S, Department of Agri 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 305 

culture, the invidious discriuiinatiou which barred the entrance to 
Europe of American stockers is likely to be removed, and our cattle 
are liable in the near future to make lengthened journeys by land and 
sea. The removal of their horns will then not only lessen the owner's 
risk, but will also add materially to the comfort and safety of the animals 
themselves. 

But there is fortunately within the reach of all an open avenue of 
escape from that portion of the operation which supplies the only cogent 
argument against the practice under discussion. 

The owner of the 2 or 3 day's old calf, if he wishes it to all intents 
and purposes a "moolly," can dehorn it, or, more correctly speaking, 
prevent horns ever being developed, by means of a chemical prepara- 
tion which reduces the pain to a minimum, while it is even more effect- 
ual than either the saw or forceps. There are several chemical dekorn- 
ers advertised in the open market, most or all of them effective, but the 
cheapest and simplest consists of a stick of caustic potash. 

The operation is performed as follows, and is uniformly successful, if 
performed before the calf is 3 days old : The little animal is caught and 
gently laid over on its side, in which position it is easily held by one 
assistant while the operator clips the hair off the trifling prominence 
on the frontal bone, which marks the spot on the uppermost side of the 
head where the horn would be developed if not interfered with. He 
then takes his stick of potash, dips it in cold water, and carefully rubs 
it over the part just clipped for the space of, say, ten seconds. The calf 
is now turned over, the corresponding portion of the frontal bone on that 
side clipped and thoroughly rubbed with the moistened potash the same 
way as the first. 

By this time the side first treated is dry and ready for a second appli- 
cation of the caustic, which should conform exactly to the first. Fol- 
low the same procedure on the remaining side, where the matrix of the 
embryo horn has been located, and if the caustic has been properly 
applied no horns will ever make their appearance. 

For animals intended to be kept either for steers or dairy cows noth- 
ing can be more effectual, but it were well to discriminate between these 
and the head of the herd, the bull, and for this reason: We dehorn our 
cows and steers chiefly to protect them from each other, whereas our 
main object in dehorning the bull is to protect ourselves. For this 
reason our end in the case of the latter is more effectually accomplished 
if we leave him in possession of his horns until he has learned to rely 
upon them as his weapons of offense and defense, and then deprive 
him ot his armament. If we employ in his case chemical dehorning at 
the early age recommended for the steer and cow, necessity becomes a 
second nature, and the animal intuitively adopts the catapult-like tac- 
tics of the " moolly." These, although, comparatively speaking, less 
harmful as between the animals themselves, are equally dangerous when 
directed against their owner; for captious, indeed, would be the critic 
who discriminated between being butted to death or hooked to death. 
24697 20 



306 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Instances have been cited to prove that the effects of the deprivation 
of his horns are only temporary in the case of the animal that has once 
become dangerous or unruly, but a lengthened and varied experience 
convinces me that such is not the general fact. The moral effect of 
throwing the animal and depriving it of its natural weapons is both 
great and lasting, and with proper treatment the advantages thus 
obtained need neither be lost nor lessened. The animal, shorn of its 
weapons, dreads the very approach of man, and its impulse is to go 
from him instead of for him. Animals are of more retentive memory 
than they are generally credited with. May we venture on a case in 
point : 

In Iowa a certain hog went daily to the railroad depot to gratify his 
appetite with the grains of corn dropped from the trains in passing. 
One day, when familiarity had assuaged his fear of cars and engines, 
his fastidious taste induced him to endeavor to secure an unusually 
tempting morsel that lay between the rails underneath a train then 
standing at the station. At this moment the train happened to start, 
taking with it the porker's tail, which had become imprisoned between 
the wheel and the shoe of the brake, leaving the unfortunate epicure to 
go through the rest of his career without a steering apparatus. One 
would have supposed the warning would have proved deterrent, but 
those who took an interest in the venturesome porcine observed that 
while he adhered to his daily foraging expeditions on the track, when- 
ever he heard the rattle of the cars or the whistle of the locomotive he 
gravely backed up against an adjacent water- tank to insure the safety 
of his already diminished ornament. The animal had had sufficient 
railroading experience to be able to appreciate to the full extent the 
awful seriousness of the loss of terminal facilities. He did not want 
any more tail taken off; and it is exactly so with the bull deprived of 
his horns. Let him keep them until he has learned to depend on them, 
then take them off, and if rationally treated he will ever after be quiet 
and tractable. 

The operation is in itself simple, and can under ordinary circumstances 
be performed by the owner. The precaution of the greatest importance 
is to see that the animal is secured so that it can not struggle enough 
to hurt itself. The animal may be thrown by any of the methods already 
indicated. The only additional accessories for the above purpose is a 
strong halter and a long rope, fastened around its girth before it is cast. 
The free end of this is then passed through the ring on the halter and 
the head pulled back against the ribs. A hitch underneath the tail 
should bring the rope forward to the halter, where it may be fastened 
so as to be readily loosed when the first horn has been removed. To 
remove the second horn loose the head, turn the animal over, and 
refasten the head as before. 

The exponents of dehorning have attempted to envelop the operation 
in a mist of a technical absurdities, and insist on the necessity of an 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 307 

apparatus as intricate as a self-binder and about as easy to move round 
as the average elevator. But the above method will answer all prac- 
tical purposes. The only instrument needed is an ordinary jointing 
saw, which should be used as quietly and quickly as possible. 

Animals may be dehorned any time except in flytirne, or when the 
mercury is liable to drop to the neighborhood of zero, and cold water is 
the only dressing needed. It is a good practice to deprive the animal 
of food for twelve hours before operating. 

BLEEDING OR BLOOD-LETTING. 

Although nowadays tins operation has fortunately become less fre- 
quent than when it was generally considered the panacea for all ills, 
there are beyond doubt some cases in which the operation is admittedly 
the quickest and surest means of affording relief. 

In the ox the operation is usually performed on the left jugular vein, 
which is large and is easily rendered so prominent as to prevent the 
possibility of mistake, by tying a cord around the neck below the place 
where the incision is to be made. (Plate xxvii, Fig. 4.) The rope should 
be tied in a slip knot, so as to admit of its being easily undone, or a 
rope used with a loop at one end and a series of good-sized knots at the 
other, the loop and knots to be used as buttons and button holes. The 
best instrument to use is a large-bladed fleam. (Plate xxvii, Fig. 3.) 
After the animal is secured the operator stands by the shoulder, holds 
the fleam in his left hand, the blade just short of touching the skin and 
parallel to the direction of the vein, and the stick or mallet with which 
to strike it in his right y one quick sharp blow should be sufficient. If 
the hair is long it is a wise precaution to moisten and smooth it down. 

When sufficient blood has been withdrawn the rope is removed and 
the orifice closed by means of a pin inserted through the lips of the 
incision in the shin only, and a piece of fine string or tow wound either 
over or under it in the shape of a figure 8, or in a circle between the 
skin and the pin (Plate xxviii, Fig. 10), the point of which should be 
clipped off. To prevent the animal from rubbing the part and tearing 
or dislodging the pin, it is advisable to tie the head up for a couple of 
days, providing the animal's health will admit of it, after which the 
pin may be removed and the wound left to heal in the usual manner. 

Before leaving the subject it may be well to add that as the good 
effects derived from bleeding depends more on the quickness with 
which the blood is drawn than on the quantity extracted, it is of 
importance that a liberal opening should be made into the blood-vessel 
and the blood allowed to flow until a perceptible impression has been 
made on the pulse. 

As has already been said, the best instrument in the hands of an 
owner is the fleam, as owing to the toughness and thickness of the 
skin of the ox the edge of a lancet is apt to turn and inflict a gash 
in a direction other than the operator intended. I need hardly add 



308 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tliat tlie instrument used should be sharp and scrupulously clean. A 
neglect of the latter precaution is apt to lead to very serious conse- 
quences. 

SETONING. 

Setons are used in case of the ox tribe for various purposes, of which 
perhaps the most common is as a preventive in anthrax or blackleg, 
when a seton is usually inserted in the dewlap. This is not done to 
afford exit to any poisonous discharge from the system, as is generally 
supposed, but to cause a sufficient amount of inflammation to increase 
the coagulating properties of the blood, which in these diseases becomes 
altered (as described elsewhere), notably losing its viscidity and in 
consequence oozing through the walls of the blood vessels. For this 
purpose the seton should be deeply inserted and should be dressed 
daily with turpentine or common blister. 

The ordinary use of a seton is for a different object, as, for instance, 
to keep up constant drainage from a cavity containing matter, or to 
act as a stimulant or counterirritant. To insert a seton, the place of 
entrance and exit having been decided on, with the finger and thumb 
make a small fold of the skin transverse to the direction the seton is to 
be inserted, and cut it through, either with a sharp knife or a pair of 
scissors (this should be done at both the entrance and exit) ; then with a 
steady pressure and slight lateral movement insert the seton by means 
of a seton needle. (Plate xvni, Figs. 1 and 2.) The seton should consist 
of a piece of strong tape, varying in breadth according to circumstances, 
and should be kept in place either by a knot on each end or by tying 
the ends together. 

Setons should be gently moved once a day after suppuration is set 
up, and they should not be allowed to remain in over three weeks, or a 
month at the outside. 

TRACHEOTOMY. 

This operation consists of making an opening in the trachea or wind- 
pipe. It is indicated whenever there is an obstruction from any cause 
in the upper part of the respiratory tract which threatens the death 
of the animal by asphyxia (suffocation). The mode of procedure is as 
follows : Have an assistant extend the animal's head as far as possible 
to make the trachea tense and prominent; make a longitudinal incision 
about 2 or 2 J inches long through the skin and deeper tissues at the 
most prominent part of the trachea, which is about the middle or upper 
third; the edges of the skin should be held apart to allow the intro- 
duction of the tenaculum or curved needle through the rings of the 
trachea, and a circular piece of the trachea removed, large enough to 
allow of the introduction of the tracheotomy tube. (Plate xxvn, Figs. 
1 and 2.) The latter should be removed once or -twice daily and 
cleansed, and the wound dressed antiseptically. To ascertain when it 
is time to discontinue the use of the tube and to allow the wound to 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 309 

close, the hand should be held over the opening, which will necessitate 
the animal to use its natural passages in breathing. Observe if it is 
performed in a natural manner, and if so remove the tube and allow 
the wound to close. This is the general mode of procedure where the 
surgeon has all the necessary instruments and a moderate amount of 
time at his disposal. Often it has to be performed in great haste with- 
out the proper instruments and under great disadvantages, the operator 
having to quickly cut down and open the trachea and spread the parts, 
using some instrument improvised by him at the time. This operation 
only gives the animal relief in breathing, and therefore the proper 
remedial treatment should be adopted at the onset of the attack and 
continued until the cause (the disease) has been overcome. 

CHOKING. 

Choking, or the lodging of foreign bodies in the gullet is divided into 
pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic, according to location of the obstruc- 
tion. The symptoms in general are uneasiness on the part of the 
patient, involuntary movement of the jaws, grinding of the teeth, & 
profuse escape of saliva and tympanitis of the rumen. If the obstruc- 
tion is in the pharynx the mouth speculum should be introduced and 
the hand and arm of the operator oiled and inserted and an effort made 
to remove the obstruction. If this should be unsuccessful it will prob- 
ably be necessary to have recourse to the probang, (Plate in, Fig. 2), 
which should be carefully introduced and the obstruction slowly pushed 
downwards toward the rumen, care being taken not to lacerate tlic 
coats of the oesophagus. An operation known as cesophagotomy may 
be performed in case the above efforts have failed. I will briefly de 
scribe the steps to be taken in such an emergency. 

CESOPHAGOTOMY. 

This operation is easily performed, but, as above stated, should not 
be resorted to unless all other methods have failed, as wounds of the 
oesophagus are difficult to manage, and tend to produce a stricture of 
the tube. 

To perform the operation have a strong assistant elevate the animal's 
head so as to stretch and render tense the inferior muscles of the neck. 
With a sharp convex bistoury make a longitudinal incision through 
the skin, muscles, and coats of the oesophagus directly down upon the 
obstacle, care being taken not to make the incision any longer than 
necessary. After the obstruction is removed the wound in the oesopha- 
gus is closed and sutured with carbolized catgut, then the divided 
muscle and skin brought in apposition and secured. The animal 
should be fed on gruels for a few days and the wound dressed daily 
upon the same general principles as an ordinary wound. 



310 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

PUNCTURING THE RUMEN. 

This is an operation that when indicated has to be performed at once 
or the animal may be lost. It is indicated in severe cases of acute 
tympanites in cattle, commonly known as hoven, which is due to the 
generation of gas resulting from fermentation. To relieve this disten- 
sion an ordinary cattle trocar and canula (Plate ni, Figs. 5 a and 5 b) are 
inserted into the rumen, the most distended portion of the left side of 
the animal being the part selected. The trocar is withdrawn and the 
canula left in until the gas has fully escaped. 

Puncturing is not a serious operation in cattle, and in cases of great 
distension should be performed without hesitancy or delay. Belief is 
almost instantaneous in many cases. Of course the proper remedial 
agents should be administered to arrest further fermentation. (See 
Tympanites, p. 29.) 

RUMENOTOMY. 

The opening of the paunch or rumen in cattle and the removal of a 
part or the whole of the ingesta through said opening is termed runien- 
otomy. The operation should only be performed in severe cases where 
the rumen is excessively overloaded and distended. The animal is 
placed with its right side against a wall and firmly held in position by 
strong assistants. The incision is made in the same place that the 
trocar is inserted for puncturing that organ in cases of hoven. The 
opening is increased in size until the operator's hand can be inserted 
into the rumen. Before any of the contents are removed from that 
organ a linen cloth should be jdaced from the outer wound into the 
rumen in order to prevent any of the ingesta from getting into the 
abdominal cavity. After removing a portion of the contents of the 
rumen some practitioners introduce such medicine as may be indicated 
before closing the wound. Clean the wound and close the opening in 
the rumen with uninterrupted (Plate xxviii, Fig. 8) carbolized catgut 
sutures. Next close the external wound, consisting of the integument, 
muscle, and peritoneum, with stout interrupted (Plate xxviii, Fig. 6) 
metallic sutures. No food should be given for several hours after the 
operation, and then only gruels. (See Distension of Bumen with Food, 
p. 31.) 

TREATMENT OF ABSCESSES. 

Abscesses are of frequent occurrence and demand prompt treatment. 
An abscess may be detected, if situated externally, by heat, pain, red- 
ness, and swelling in the early stages, and if further developed by the 
fluctuation which will be present. When any of these symptoms are 
absent, the suppuration should be encouraged by the means of hot 
fomentations and poultices. Care must be taken that the abscess is 
not opened too soon, or it may to some extent cause it to scatter and 
the escape of pus will be lessened. The time to open an abscess is just 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 311 

before it is ready to break, and should be done with a sharp lance, a 
crucial incision sometimes being - necessary. The cavity should be syr- 
inged out with tepid water, which is better if mildly antiseptic. Care 
should be taken not to allow the wound to close too rapidly, and to pre- 
vent this a tent of lint or oakum should be introduced. 

WOUNDS. 

It is probably not going too far to say that as a general rule wounds 
of the bovine species, unless sufficiently serious to endanger the ani- 
mal's life, are left uncared for. The poor suffering creatures are too 
often, even in fly-time, left to endure untold torture from wounds not 
at first of much importance, but which, from the constant irritation 
caused by flies, dirt, etc., often develop into hideous, unhealthy sores, 
which can not fail, even, when they do heal, to leave extensive and last- 
ing blemishes as silent records of the owner's thriftlessness and inhu- 
manity. 

The comparatively low market value of all but the full-blood and 
pedigreed animal precludes an owner (save in a few exceptional cases, 
inspired by a higher than ordinary sense of humanity) from entertain- 
ing professional assistance. It is more than doubtful whether the suf- 
fering creature does not go from bad to worse when its case is made 
over to the tender mercies of the ignorant local cow-leech, to whom 
" wolf in the tail" is a terrifying living presence, and " hollow horn" a 
solid fact, and whose sole claim to erudition in such matters consists of 
a generally conceited ability to manufacture on scientific prescriptions 
an artificial substitute for the cud supposed to be " lost." 

There is yet another class of owners who entertain an infinite and 
blind belief in liniments and patent nostrums, which are not only an 
unnecessary expense, but sometimes by their very action retard rather 
than expedite the process by which nature iu her unerring wisdom 
repairs the injured tissues, tendons, and bony structure. 

It should always be borne in mind that although some applications 
are stimulating, and therefore serve as a useful ally in the process of 
restoration, it is after all to nature we must look to renovate the injured 
parts, and all that tbe most skillful can do is to intelligently aid her by 
combating those conditions which are calculated to interfere with her 
beneficent endeavors. All that the most suitable applications can 
accomplish in the case of wounds is in the first place to prevent the 
access of those poisonous germs which exist in the surroundings of the 
animal, such as the soil and the manure, and in the second wheu the 
process of repair is for some reason temporarily inactive or altogether 
arrested to incite that curative inflammation which is the invariable 
method by which the cure is effected. 

Some owners may urge that it has always been their practice to use 
some shotgun prescription that has earned for itself a reputation, because 
it was supposed to have routed a rash on the youngest baby, and proved 



312 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

equally efficacious on a wire-cut on tlie last dropped calf, without even 
pausing to think that cither case might have done equally well or even 
better if confided unanointed to the healing hands of nature. 

For the purposes of the present work wounds may he divided into 
three classes: (1) Incised; (2) punctured; (3) lacerated or contused. 

An incised wound is one with clean-cut edges, and may be either 
superficial or deep. In wounds of all descriptions there is necessarily 
more or less bleeding, and this is especially liable to be the case in 
incised wounds, particularly when they penetrate to a considerable 
depth, or when inflicted on a part where arteries of any size approach 
the surface. To arrest the hemorrhage must, therefore, be the first con- 
sideration. If slight, a generous use of cold water will be all that is 
necessary, but if one or more vessels of any size have been wounded or 
entirely severed they should betaken up and ligated. If the blood 
flows continuously and is dark in color it proceeds from a vein, but if 
bright colored and jerky in its flow it is arterial. 

There is nothing very formidable or difficult in taking up an artery. 
It simply means tying up the bleeding vessel, which should be accom- 
plished as follows : To discover the bleeding artery take a sponge, dip 
it in cold water, and by gentle pressure on the wound clear it of the 
accumulated blood. The jet of fresh blood reveals the end of the 
vessel, which is readily recognized by its whitish yellow or buff color. 
It should be seized with a forceps or pincers and slightly drawn clear 
of the surrounding tissues. Now take the thread and place the middle 
of it under the artery, fetch up the ends, tie one simple knot tightly, 
pressing down the thread with the forefinger so as not to include the 
forceps, then a second one over it, cut off the ends, and the thing is 
done. The bleeding being arrested, the operator can now carefully 
clean and inspect the wound, taking care to remove all blood and for- 
eign matters and clip the hair around the edges before proceeding to 
stitch it up. If the wound is superficial the lips may be brought 
together by a series of independent stitches (Plate xxvin, Fig. 6), about 
three-fourths of an inch to an inch apart. The stitches should not be 
drawn tightly; it is sufficient to bring the edges of the wound in 
apposition. 

If the wound is deep the needle should be introduced perpendicularly 
at as great a distance from the lip of the wound as the depth it is to 
be inserted, so as to give the thread sufficient hold. All the stitches 
should be as nearly as possible at equal distances from the border of 
the wound to prevent unequal strain, and the knots should be made at 
the side, not over the wound. (Plate xxvin, Fig. 6.) When the wound 
is large and deep, care should be taken to have an opening in the 
lowest part to allow for the escape of the discharges. 

In deep wounds which run crosswise of a limb or muscle it will often 
be advisable to use what is technically known as the " quilled suture," 
which is most readily described by Fig. 7, Plate xxvin. To accom- 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 313 

plish this method a curved needle with an eye in the point and a strong 
double thread should be used. The needle thus threaded is introduced 
perpendicularly at least an inch from the wound on one side, carried 
across below and brought out the same distance from the border of the 
cut on the opposite side, the thread being seized and held in position 
while the needle is withdrawn, leaving a loop of thread protruding on 
one side and two loose ends on the other of each stitch. When a suffi- 
cient number of stitches have been made, take a light piece of wood 
about the size of a lead pencil, corresponding in length to the size of 
the wound or slightly longer, and insert it through each of the loops, 
drawing up the free ends of the threads, which should in turn be tied 
securely on a similar piece of wood on that side. 

Punctured wounds. — Owing to the irncertainty of their depth and the 
structures they may involve, punctured wounds are by far the most 
dangerous and difficult to treat. Not only is the extent of the damage 
hidden from view, but the very character of the injury, as can be readily 
understood, implies at least the possibility of deep-seated inflammation 
and consequent discharge of pus (matter), which, when formed, is kept 
pent up until it has accumulated to such an extent that it burrows by 
simple gravity, as no other exit is possible. In this way foreign mat- 
ters, such as a broken piece of the stake or snag, or whatever caused 
the wound, may be carried to an indefinite depth, or the cavity of a 
joint may be invaded and very serious, if not fatal, consequences 
supervene. 

The danger is especially marked when the injury is inflicted on parts 
liable to frequent and extensive motion, but all cases of punctured 
wounds should receive unusual care, as no judgment can be accurately 
formed from the external appearance of the wound. While a probe 
can ascertain the depth, it throws but little light on the extent or exact 
nature of the internal injury. For this reason all punctured wounds 
should invariably be carefully searched by means of a probe or some 
substitute devised for the occasion, such as a piece of wire with a 
smooth blunt end, or a piece of hard wood shaped for the purpose. 
Stitching is not admissible in the case of punctured wounds. 

In the event of a punctured wound not being very deep, when the 
bruising and laceration are slight, it is possible for healing to take 
place by adhesion, and this should always be encouraged, as the proc- 
ess of repair by this method is far superior to that by granulation, 
which will be referred to later. With this object in view the animal 
should be kept as quiet as possible. A dose of physic, such as a pound 
of Glauber or Epsom salts, should be administered, and warm fomenta- 
tions or poultices, when this is practicable, applied, the surface of the 
wound being dressed twice a day with the ordinary white lotion, which 
is made as follows: 

Acetate of lead ....1 ounce. 

Sulphate of zinc ^ 6 drams. 

Water 1 quart 



314 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

The lead and zinc should be pat in a quart bottle with a pint of rain 
water and well .shaken, when the balance of the water may be added. 

In wounds of this description the process of repair may be complicated 
by the appearance of exuberant granulations, popularly known as 
" proud " or " dead flesh," but these should not be interfered with unless 
they should continue after the acute stage of inflammation has been sub- 
dued. If, after this, they persist, they may be treated with a solution 
of sulphate of copper (blue-stone) or nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) and 
water. Irritation, caused by an overinterference with the process of 
repair, and injudicious bandaging are potent factors in bringing about 
this condition, and the discontinuance of either or both, will often leave 
no necessity for special treatment. 

Contused or lacerated wounds. — These are usually caused by a blow 
with some blunt instrument, the breaking of the flooring, or an animal 
getting one of its limbs through or over the partition between the stalls. 
The seriousness depends largely on the depth of the injury, and treat- 
ment should be directed to allaying the inflammation and preventing 
the consequent tendency to sloughing. To this end soothing applica- 
tions, such as fomentations and poultices, are plainly indicated. 

Methods of healing. — These may technically be divided into a num- 
ber of distinct processes, but practically we may speak of them as two 
only, viz., by primary union or adhesion, and by granulation. As sup- 
puration is not so liable to occur in the ox as in the horse, healing by 
the former and more speedy process is much more common in the first 
named species, more particularly in clean cut or incised wounds, pro- 
vided they have been stitched within twelve hours from the time the 
injury which caused them was inflicted ; that they have been kept clean 
and that the patient has by some means been kept fairly still. This 
latter stipulation is probably hardest to comply with. Quiet is an 
important factor in the process of repair among the lower animals as 
well as their masters, and the rule is none the less good because unfor- 
tunately it is more frequently honored in the breach than in the observ- 
ance. Healing by this method is in some cases extraordinarily quick, 
union between the divided parts having been known to take place as 
soon as twenty-four hours after their adjustment by the surgeon. 

The second method of healing, namely, by granulation, which is, 
however, the manner in which most wounds in animals heal, takes much 
longer time. In punctured wounds of any depth healing necessarily 
takes place in this way only, and the treatment should be directed 
largely to alleviating pain and moderating inflammation. The former 
can be accomplished by opium applied locally in the form of the diluted 
tincture, or given internally in repeated small doses, and the latter by 
aconite or fluid extract of gelsemium. Twenty-five to thirty drops of 
either are given at intervals depending on the severity of the fever in 
the drinking water or dropped on the tongue. 

After treatment and dressing of wounds. — The dressing of wounds, 
whether they have been attended to by a veterinarian or not, is a mat- 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 315 

ter which, in case of animals of the ox tribe, invariably devolves upon 
the owner or his employe's. It must not, however, be inferred from this 
that the matter is of secondary importance. The dressing - of wounds 
is one of the most important branches of veterinary surgery, and one 
of the most constant difficulties that the practicing veterinarian has to 
contend with lies in the want of appreciation on the part of owners in 
the absolute importance of care and attention in the after treatment of 
wounds. It is for this reason that the writer is averse to closing this 
portion of his task without pointedly calling attention to the fact that 
it is very largely to skillful, patient, and careful dressing that satisfac- 
tory recovery from most serious accidents is due, and this unswerving 
vigilance and solicitude I would bespeak not only for the injured parts, 
but for the general care of the animal and its surroundings. 

The first and foremost consideration in the dressing of a wound is 
the observance of . scrupulous cleanliness. The most subtle medica- 
ments are worse than wasted if dirt claims a 50 per cent interest in 
the business, as is too often the case upon the farm where the care ot 
an animal is relegated to the ignorant and thoughtless hired help. 
Unless an animal is in slings, straw and other foreign bodies as well as 
blood and necessary discharges usually adhere to a wound when it 
comes to be dressed. These should be carefully freed from the wound 
by means of a sponge dipped in a 2 x>er cent solution of carbolic acid. 
The sponge should not be brought into actual contact, but should be 
wrung out just above it, the water being allowed to trickle over the 
injured part. When the wound and the parts surrounding it have 
been thoroughly cleansed it may be dressed either with the "white 
lotion," the formula for which has already been given, or with a solu- 
tion of chloride of zinc, one ounce to a quart of pure cold water. In 
cold weather the parts may be dressed with the following : Oxide of 
zinc ointment, 4 ounces; compound tincture of benzoin, 2 drams; mix, 
and keep the box covered. 

A single fold of ordinary cotton batting, gently pressed over the oint- 
ment, will cause it to remain adherent to the wounded part. In super- 
ficial excoriated wounds in cattle a very excellent first dressing (after 
thoroughly cleansing the wound) consists of iodoform (a compound of 
iodine and chloroform ) blown on to the wound through a quill or a folded 
piece of stiff paper. This should be followed by a second dressing of 
pulverized aloes applied in the same way, which not only forms an arti- 
ficial scab, but possesses the additional advantage of keeping off flies. 

There are many other applications equally simple and efficacious, 
such as perchloride of mercury, one part to eight hundred of water ; 
boracic acid, one part to twenty parts of water; carbolic acid one part 
to water thirty parts, but the foregoing will be found as good as any. 

No good purpose can be served by applying to healthy wounds irri- 
tating mixtures of oils and acids, and an owner may safely make up 
his mind to the fact that whatever mixture he may use, no matter how 
successful it may have been, he is pretty sure to have a neighbor who 



316 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

will want to know the reason why he did not use something else. 
Whatever antiseptic is used always recollect that cleanliness, rest, and 
attention constitute 50 per cent of the contest, and that the other half 
may safely be left to the restoring touch of nature. 

Barbed-wire cuts. — I have specified these simply because there exists 
in some sections of the country a fixed idea that there is a specific 
poison in barbed wire, causing injuries which require treatment differ- 
ing from that which is applicable to ordinary wounds. Barbed-wire 
cuts differ from ordinary wounds only in the parts being often lacerated 
and torn, and the treatment already indicated for wounds of that 
description is applicable to them. 

CASTRATION. 

Castration consists of the removal of the essential organs of genera- 
tion. It is performed upon both the male and the female. In the male 
the organs removed are the testicles and in the female the ovaries. 

Castration in the male is performed for several different purposes. 
It may be necessary, as is the case in certain diseased conditions ot 
the testicles and in strangulated hernia, but the usual object of the 
operation is to enhance the general value of the animal. For example, 
if the animal is intended for burden the operation will better fit him for 
his work by so modifying his temperament and physical condition that 
he may be easily controlled by his master. Again, if he is merely to be 
used for beef purposes the operation will improve the quality of the flesh. 

The operation upon the female may be performed on account of 
diseased conditions, but I may say that the chief object of the opera- 
tion is to make the animal one of more profit to its owner by altering 
the lacteal secretion and also the. physical condition. Advocates of 
this operation claim that a spayed cow will milk under favorable condi- 
tions for a number of years continuously, and that the milk is greatly 
increased in richness. Careful tests, however, indicate that the value 
of this operation with dairy cows has been exaggerated. When the cow 
is spayed it does away with all trouble attending oestruin or heat, gesta- 
tion and parturition with its accidents and ailments. The flesh of the 
spayed cow is more tender and juicy than that of the entire animal. 

The operation upon the male may be either the uncovered or the cov- 
ered. In the former the incision is made down to the testicle proper, 
and in the latter you cut through the scrotum or the outside covering 
and through the dartos or the next coat, being careful to cut no deeper 
tissues or coats. The age at which the operation is performed varies, 
but usually it is performed between the second and third month. If done 
in early life there is less danger of complications, the organs not being 
fully developed and in a latent condition. There are many different ineth 
ods of operating, the principal ones of which I will mention. In the uncov- 
ered operation a good free incision should be made, exposing the testicle 
completely. Now it may be removed by simply cutting it off. The only 
danger of doing this is the hemorrhage which is likely to follow. To obvi- 



SURGICAL OPERvYTIONS. 317 

ate this before the division of the spermatic cord it should be twisted sev- 
eral times in the following manner: Take hold of the spermatic cord with 
the left hand, having' the cord between the thumb and the index finger. 
Now twist the free portion several times with the right hand, all the time 
being careful to push with the left hand towards the body of the ani- 
mal. In this way the danger of injury to the cord during the animal's 
struggles will be overcome. The hemorrhage will be none, or very 
little, if it has been done properly. This is the most simple manner of 
torsion. There are forceps and other instruments made to perform the 
operation in tnis manner. Instead of practicing torsion in any of its 
ways to prevent hemorrhage, we may apply a ligature either directly 
to the spermatic artery from which the hemorrhage comes, or to the 
entire cord. You may either use a silk or a catgut ligature. The 
actual cautery is an old- method, but I will not describe it, as I consider 
that we have better methods now. The next method with the clamps, 
although extensively used upon the horse, is not practiced to any great 
extent upon the bovine at the present time. It is a very old method, 
and is considered very safe. Clamps are used in the covered and 
uncovered operations. 

But more simple and better methods are now known for the castra- 
tion of the bull. A more modern method is by the ecraseur. The chain 
of the instrument is placed around the spermatic cord and tightened 
so as to crush the tissues and thus prevent hemorrhage. The clamp 
and ligature are the methods principally employed in the covered opera- 
tion, and in order to thoroughly understand this procedure it will be 
necessary for the reader to have at least a crude anatomical knowledge 
of the parts. The former, or the uncovered, is the usual mode of oper- 
ating, except in certain abnormal conditions. 

The operation of "mulling" or crushing the spermatic cord is an 
unscientific and barbarous procedure, causing unnecessary pain and 
suffering. 

The above methods apply only to the animal in a normal condition. 
Before operating always examine and be sure that everything is as it 
should be. If otherwise, a special operative procedure will be neces- 
sary. Whichever mode of operation be adopted from a practical stand- 
point, the principal precautions to be taken in order to attain success 
are as follows : First, thorough cleanliness under strict aseptic and anti- 
septic precautions ; second, a free and boldly made incision ; third, the 
avoidance of undue pulling or tension upon the spermatic cord; fourth, 
free drainage, which can be maintained, provided the original incision 
has been properly made. 

CASTRATION OF THE FEMALE. 

Ovariotomy or spaying. — The operation should be performed when the 
cow is in her prime and giving her greatest flow of milk, care being 
taken that she is in good health and moderate condition, not too ple- 
thoric; or, on the other hand, she must not be at all anaemic, and also 



318 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

that she be not in heat or pregnant. This operation may be performed 
in one of two ways, namely, by the flank or by the vagina, each opera- 
tion having its special advantages. In the flank operation the animal 
may be operated upon either while standing or while in the recumbent 
position. If standing she should be placed against a wall or a parti- 
tion, and her head held by a strong assistant. The legs also must be 
secured to prevent the animal from kicking. A vertical incision should 
be made in the left flank about the middle of the upper portion, care 
being taken not to make the opening too far down, in order to avoid 
the division of the circumflex artery which traverses that region. The 
operator should now make an opening through the peritoneum, which 
is best done with the fingers. Next introduce the hand and arm into 
the abdominal cavity and direct the hand backward toward the pel- 
vis, searching for the horns of the uterus. Follow them up and the 
ovaries will easily be found. They should then be drawn outward and 
may be removed either by the ecraseur or by torsion. The closing and 
suturing the wound will complete the operation. An adhesive plaster 
bandage can be beneficially applied^ 

The operation by the vagina is more complicated and requires special 
and expensive instruments. The mode of procedure in brief is as fol- 
lows : A speculum is introduced into the vagina and an incision is made 
into the superior wall of that passage about 2 inches from the neck of 
the uterus, cutting from below upward and from before backward. 
Make an incision which should not exceed 3£ inches in length. The 
next step is to get possession of the ovaries. They are situated in a 
fold of the broad ligament and should be drawn carefully into the vagina 
through the incision. Now take the long-handled scissors specially 
made for this purpose, with which the thick border of the broad liga- 
ment is divided. The torsion forceps are introduced and applied to the 
broad ligament above the ovary. The left hand is then introduced and 
the thumb and the index finger grasp hold of the broad ligament above 
the forceps. Now commence with your right hand to apply torsion and 
thus remove the ovary. The other ovary may be removed in the same 
manner. 

The operation of castration is by no means a serious one, and when 
properly performed there is little danger from complications. Although 
the danger is trifling the complications which may arise are sometimes 
of a serious nature. Hemorrhage, either primary or secondary, tetanus 
or lockjaw, abcesses, hernia or rupture, gangrene, and peritonitis are 
the most serious complications that follow castration. Whichever com- 
plication arises will require its own special treatment, which I will not 
go into here, as it will be fully dealt with under another heading. I 
might add, however, that, generally speaking, the animal, after being 
castrated, should either be regularly exercised or be allowed freedom, 
so that it can exercise itself. Drafts of cold air or sudden changes of 
the temperature are dangerous. The animal should be fed moderately, 
but of a diet easily digestible. 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
Plate XXVI : 

Fig. 1. Reuff's method of throwing or casting the ox. From Fleming's Operative 

Veterinary Surgery. 
Fig. 2. Miles' method of throwing or casting the ox. From Fleming's Operative 

Veterinary Surgery. 
Plate XXVII: 

Fig. la front and Fig. 1 b side view of a simple tracheotomy tube. After Arm- 

atage, from Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery. This tube is inserted in 

the trachea or windpipe in cases of threatened suffocation from obstructions 

in the upper portion of the air passage. 
Fig. 2. Shows the tracheotomy tube applied and held in position by straps 

around the neck. After Armatage, from Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery. 
Fig. 3. Represents an ordinary fleam with blades of different sizes. 
Fig. 4. Cow prepared for bleeding. A cord is tied firmly about the lower portion 

of the neck, causing the jugular vein to become distended with blood and 

swell out. 
Plate XXVIII: 

Fig. 1 and 2. Seton needles. These may be either long or 6hort, straight or 

curved, according to the locality in which a seton is to be inserted. 
Fig. 3. Various forms of surgical needles. 
Fig. 4. Suture forceps or needle-holder, for passing needles through thick and 

dense tissues. 
Fig. 5. Knot properly tied. 
Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Various forms of sutures. Fig. 6, interrupted suture ; 7, quilled 

suture; 8, uninterrupted suture ; 9, twisted suture, made by passing suture 

pins through the parts to be held together aud winding the thread about 

them so as to represent the figure 8 ; 10, single-pin suture. 
Fig. 11. Appliance for ringing the bull, one-fourth natural size. 
Fig. 12. Nose clamp, with spring and keeper. 
320 



PLATE .XXVI 







!Qa> "».wass, 




DEVTCES FOR CASTING CATTLE, 



PLATE XXVn 




TRACHEOTOME AND VENISECTION. 



PLATE XXVOI. 




SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND SUTURES. 



TUMORS. 



By DR. WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE, 

Superintendent of the United States Neat Cattle quarantine Station for the port of New 

York, Garfield, N. J. 



Tumors are noninflammatory new growths due to increased nutrition. 
They may be superficial or deep seated, external or internal. From a 
pathological point of view there is a great variety of tumors, both benign 
and malignant, but in this chapter it is my purpose to describe only the 
more common ones that affect animals of the bovine species. One of 
the most frequent and troublesome tumors of the nonmalignant class 
in cattle is the epidermic, commonly known as the wart. Warts consist 
of a thickening of the epidermis, or outer skin, produced by accumula- 
tion of its scales, with hypertrophy of the papillae of the true skin. 
These growths generally occur in young animals and are frequently 
seen upon the under surface of the abdomen, the mammary glands, the 
genitals, lips, and eyelids. Their removal is not attended with danger; 
their seat should be cauterized immediately after removal, to prevent 
their return. They may be removed with caustic, by excision, by tor- 
sion, or by the ligature, the method being determined by their size, con- 
formation, and location upon the animal. 

The fibroma or fibrous tumor is nonmalignant, and is principally coin- 
posed of developed connective tissue. It is usual to see tumors of this 
class in parts where there is much fibrous tissue. They vary greatly in 
size; sometimes they are as small as an ordinary wart, and on the other 
hand fibrous tumors have been removed that were many pounds in 
weight. A fibrous tumor develojis slowly and no pain or tenderness is 
likely to be detected unless the tumor should be accidentally bruised or 
otherwise injured. The tumor is generally hard and has a rounded form 
and may be contained in a wall of areolar tissue, but occasionally it is 
soft. This variation is principally due to the age of the tumor and the 
time in which it has been developing. The fibromais not by any means 
a dangerous tumor; it acts mainly as an inconvenience, the degree of 
which depends upon its size and location. However, they often become 
very large, but they have few vessels and little hemorrhage is likely 
to follow their removal with a knife. Fibrous tumors are often due to 
imprisonment of pus in the deep-seated muscular structures, which may 
arise from undue pressure of some kind, or from bruises. Intelligent 
and prompt treatment will in the majority of cases be followed by grat- 
ifying results. In the early stages iodine may be applied externally or 
24697 21 321 



322 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

injected into the substance of the tumor. Good results are often 
obtained by the application of stimulating embrocations and by suitable 
blisters. Setons are sometimes inserted with excellent results; caus- 
tics and the actual cautery are also occasionally used. It is my exper- 
ience that in most cases where the growth is hard and of long standing 
by far the best treatment is by extirpation with the knife. Although 
this tumor in itself, as I have already said, contains only a few blood-ves- 
sels, yet it maybe located upon or in close proximity to a large artery or 
important nerve. Injury to the latter might cause loss of either sensa- 
tion or motion to a part, and therefore I would impress upon the opera- 
tor the importance of familiarity with the anatomy of the part. If 
the operator knows the course of the large blood-vessels and the nerves 
in the vicinity of the tumor there is little or no risk, provided, of course, 
that the knife is handled with dexterity. The sensibility of the tissues 
may be lessened by injecting a solution of cocaine with the hypoderuiic 
needle into the substance of the tumor and surrounding tissues a few 
minutes before commencing the operation. The form and extent of the 
incision through the skin must depend upon the size, base, and relation 
of the tumor. A straight incision prolonged beyond the base of the 
tumor, in order to allow greater freedom in dissection and more com- 
plete extirpation, will suffice in some cases, but an elliptical incision 
should be resorted to when the enveloping skin is in excess and a por- 
tion has to be removed. If all the skin is to be saved and the tumor is 
large, a crucial T or Y incision should be made. The enucleation of large 
tumors, especially those with a wide base, requires time and care. The 
flaps of the wound may be kept apart by an assistant or tenaculi. The 
tumor itself may be seized by the hand, forceps, or tenaculum, or if volu- 
minous, a piece of tape or strong ligature thread maybe passed through 
it, by which it can be better held and moved about while the dissection 
is made. Hemorrhage from small vessels can be readily suppressed by 
compression or by torsion with the artery forceps. Hemorrhage from 
larger vessels should be controlled by the ligature, which is the safest 
method with vessels of any size. After the tumor is removed the wound 
is closed and treated as any ordinary wound, unless the extirpation has 
not been completely made, in which case caustics of varying strength 
are sometimes introduced before the wound is allowed to heal. 

Polypi belong to the fibrous tumors, and may be defined as tumors 
attached by means of a narrow pedicle. A polypus not infrequently 
occurs in the nasal passages, often bleeding readily and sometimes 
interfering with respiration. A polypus also sometimes develops in 
the vagina and the uterus of cows. The treatment of polypus is 
removal when possible. The ecraseur will be found a useful instrument 
for this purpose. After removal the parts should be frequently syr- 
inged with an antiseptic wash. 

The lipomata or fatty tumor, consisting of fat cells, is another of the 
nonmalignant tumors which sometimes develops upon the bovine ani- 
mal. They should be removed when possible, whether found exter- 



TUMORS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 323 

nally, within the passage of the vagina, or any other part of the animal. 
In most cases it is necessary to cauterize the seat of the tumor imme- 
diately after removal. 

Cystic tumors. — In horned cattle immense cystic tumors form in front 
of the knees, caused by the animal being compelled to lie on a hard floor. 
The cause should be removed before any treatment is attempted. The 
simplest operation in the vicinity of a joint must be performed with 
extreme care, in order to prevent injury and traumatic inflammation 
and its results. In the cystic tumors of the knee a seton can with safety 
be inserted through their substance, after which a bandage should be 
applied to prevent the animal from bruising the parts whilst lying down. 
These cystic tumors are often removed in this way. Serous cysts form 
in different parts of the animal's body, including the thyroid body and 
the facial sinuses. In the cow small ovarian cysts are sometimes a 
cause of nymphomania." There are various other kinds of cysts, includ- 
ing cutaneous and hair-bearing cysts, the complete treatment of which 
the limits of this chapter will not allow. 

Osseous tumors develop in the neighborhood of joints in rheumatic 
affections. They result from the ossification of exudate which has 
been formed in consequence of some inflammation. Little can be 
done in the way of treatment beyond the actual cautery or counter- 
irritation. 

Osteosarcoma is a tumor composed partly of flesh and partly of 
bone. The upper and lower jaws of cattle appear to be peculiarly sus- 
ceptible to this form of disease, the growth having an irregularly pro- 
tuberant surface. (See Actinomycosis, p. 409.) 

Carcinoma, or cancer. — The most malignant tumors in the bovine, as 
in the human being, are beyond doubt the carcinomata, or cancer and 
its varieties, which are the encephaloid, scirrhous, colloid, cystic, and 
epithelial. The various forms of encephaloid cancer are known as vil- 
lous, melanotic, and fungus hseinatodes. The favorite seat of cancer in 
the ox seems to be the maxilla, although the tongue is not infrequently 
its seat. When the heart is affected it is almost always secondarily. 

In the early stages of cancer the general health is not perceptibly 
affected, but as the disease advances the lymphatics and glands become 
involved. If discovered in the early stages excision of the tumor may 
be performed, but if the disease has progressed to any extent this is 
not likely to be followed by beneficial results, owing to its malignity 
and tendency to recur. Numerous caustics have been employed. Such 
measures in the ox, however, have not been at all satisfactory, and 
from the tendency of the disease to recur, and owing to its nature, the 
affected animals should not only be destroyed, but the flesh condemned 
as human food, 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 



By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S., Sterling, 111. 



The slcin consists of two parts, the epidermis or cuticle, and the der- 
mis, cutis vera or corium. 

The epidermis, cuticle, or scarf skin, is an epithelial structure, form- 
ing a protective covering to the corium. It varies in thickness, is quite 
insensible and nonvascular, and consists of agglutinated cells ; these 
cells vary in form, the deep layers being columnar, those above rounded, 
flat on the free surface, finally dry, desquamating membranous or horny 
scales. 

The epidermis is divided into a firm and transparent superficial and 
a deep soft layer. The latter is the rete mucosum, in whose cells the 
pigment exists which gives color to the skin. The deep surface of the 
epidermis is accurately molded on the j>apillary layer of the true skin, 
and, when removed by maceration, presents depressions which corre- 
spond to the elevations on the dermis. From the cuticle tubular pro- 
longations pass into the sebaceous and sudorific glands ; thus the en- 
tire surface of the body is inclosed by the cuticle. 

The dermis, or true skin, is vascular and highly sensitive, being the 
seat of touch. It is covered by epidermis, and attached to the under- 
lying parts by a layer of areolar tissue, which usually contains fat, 
hence called panniculus adiposus. The cutis consists of fibro-areolar 
tissue and vessels of supply. It is divided into two layers, the deep or 
true corium and the upper or papillary. The corium consists of strong 
interlacing fibrous bands, chiefly white ; its meshes are larger and more 
open towards the attached surface, giving lodgment to the sweat glands 
and fat. The papillary or superficial layer is formed of a series of small 
conical eminences or papillae, which are highly sensitive, and consist 
of a homogenous transparent tissue. The blood vessels form dense 
capillary plexuses in the corium, terminating by loops in the papillae. 
The papillary nerves run in a waving manner, usually terminating in 
loops. 

Hair is an appendage of the skin and forms its external covering. 
It is a special modification of epidermis, having the same essential 
structure. It consists of a root, shaft, and r>oint. The root has a bulb- 

325 



326 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

ous extremity, is lighter and softer than the stem, and lodged in a 
recess or hair follicle, which may either be in the corium or subcuta- 
neous areolae The follicle is dilated at the bottom to correspond with 
the root-bulb, and the duets of one or more sebaceous glands open into 
it. At the bottom of each follicle is a conical vascular papilla, similar 
in every respect to those on the surface of the skin; this papilla fits 
into a corresponding depression in the root of the hair. The shaft con- 
sists of a center or medulla, a surrounding fibrous portion, and an 
external coating or cortex. The medulla consists of cells containing 
pigment or fat, is opaque, and deeply colored. All hair has not this 
medulla. The fibrous portion occupies the bulk of the stem, and the 
cortex is merely a single layer of thin, flat, imbricated scales. 

The sebaceous glands, lodged in the corium, are most abundant in 
parts exposed to friction. They generally open into the hair follicles, 
occasionally on the surface of the body. Each gland consists of a 
small duct, which terminates in a lobulated recess. These lobules 
vary, and are, as is the duct, lined with epithelium. They are filled 
with sebaceous matter, which, as it is secreted, is detached into the 
sacs. They are very plentiful between the claws of cattle. 

The sudorific glands, or sweat glands, are situated in the subcuta- 
neous areolar tissue, surrounded by a quantity of fat. They are small, 
round, reddish bodies, each of which consists of one or more fine tubes 
coiled into a ball, the free end of the tube being continued up through 
the true skin and cuticle, and opening on the surface. Each sweat- 
gland is supplied with a cluster of capillary blood-vessels which vary 
in size, being very lasge when perspiration is excessive. The contents 
of the smaller ones are fluid, and the larger semifluid. 

The skin may be regarded as an organ supplementary in its action 
to the lungs and kidneys, since the skin by its secretion is capable 
of removing a considerable quantity of water from the blood, small 
amounts of carbon dioxide, and small amounts of salts, and in cer- 
tain instances during suppression of the renal secretions a small 
amount of urea. The skin is also the chief organ for the regulation 
of animal heat, by or through conduction, radiation, and evapora- 
tion of water, permitting of loss of heat, while it also, through other 
mechanisms, is able to regulate the amount of heat lost. The hair 
furnishes protection against extreme and sudden variations of tem- 
perature by the fact that hairs are poor conductors of heat, and 
inclose between them a still layer of air, itself a nonconductor of 
heat. The hairs are also furnished with an apparatus by which 
the loss of heat may be regulated; thus, in cold weather, through 
the contraction of unstriped muscular fibers of the skin, the hairs 
become erect and the external coat becomes thicker. Cold, too, 
acts as a stimulus to the growth of hair, and we find in consequence a 
thicker coat in winter than in summer. The hairs also furnish protec- 
tion against wet, as they are always more or less oily from the secretion 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 327 

of sebaceous glands, and thus shed water. The Lairs, through their 
elasticity, furnish mechanical protection, and through the thickness of 
the coat, to a certain degree, resist the attacks of insects. Finally, 
the hairs assist the sense of touch. 

The sweat-glands are constantly discharging a watery secretion in 
the form of insensible perspiration, and by their influence act as regu- 
lators of the temperature of the body. Hence, in warm weather, the 
secretion of the skin is increased, which tends to prevent the overheat- 
ing of the body. Sweating, in addition to regulating heat, is also an 
active agent in removing effete material from the blood; therefore this 
secretion can not be checked without danger to the animal. If the skin 
be covered with an impermeable coating of grease or tar, death results 
from blood poisoning, due to the retention of materials destined to be 
excreted by the skin. 

The total amount of secretion poured out by the skin is not only modi- 
fied by the condition of the atmosphere, but also by the character and 
quantity of the food, by the amount of exercise, and especially by the 
quantity of fluid taken. 

The sebaceous secretion is intended to lubricate the skin and hairs. 
It consists of soft, fatty material suspended in water, and is character- 
ized by a special odor peculiar to the animal by which it is secreted. 

I will not attempt to classify the various diseases of the skin, for in a 
work of this kind it would only serve to confuse the reader. 

We will first consider a class of diseases which are of an inflamma- 
tory type; next, those due to faulty secretion and abnormal growth; 
then, diseases of parasitic origin; and, lastly, local injuries of the skin. 

PRURITIS — ITCHING. 

We will consider pruritis first as a distinct subject. It is not a dis- 
ease, only a sensation, and therefore a symptom. It is one of the symp- 
toms accompanying the majority of the diseases which we will consider 
in this work. It may truly be considered a neurosis, or increased sen- 
sibility of the skin — hyperwsthesia, dependent upon nervous excitability. 
It is, then, a functional affection, nerve disturbance, unaccompanied by 
primary structural changes in the skin. Nothing is seen except the 
secondary lesions, produced mechanically by scratching or rubbing. 

There are various forms of itching, the result of specific skin diseases, 
where the pruritis is a secondary symptom. In such cases it should 
not be regarded as an affection. 

Causes. — Many causes may induce the condition which we recognize 
here as pruritis. The most common one is gastro-intestinal irritation. 
This condition is often witnessed in cattle suffering from impaction or 
inflammation of the third stomach, and has been called " mad itch," from 
the fact that the affected animal manifested a mad fury in rubbing cer- 
tain portions of the body, even to lacerating the skin on the sides of the 
body and legs with the teeth. In attacks of dysentery I have seen 



328 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

cattle rub the root of the tail and buttocks until the flesh was worn 
off down to the bones. 

Another cause is found in affections of the liver and of the kidneys, 
when an increase of effete material has to be thrown off by the skin. 
Morbid materials circulating in the blood may produce a tickling or 
smarting sensation of the skin in their passage from the blood to the 
free surface of the skin. Certain irritating substances when eaten may 
be excreted by tbe skin, and coming thus in direct contact with the 
sensory nerves produce itching. In another class of cases thepruritis 
may be due to an atrophy, contraction, or hardening of the skin, when 
the nerves become irritated by tbe pressure. These conditions may be 
so slightly marked in a thick skin like that of the ox that they can not 
be recognized. It is frequently noticed that cattle will rub themselves 
as soon as they pass from the stable into the open air — changing from 
a warm to a cold atmosphere. Again, we may find an animal which 
does all its rubbing in tbe stall. We may look for lice, but fail to find 
them. These conditions are generally attributable to high feeding and 
to too close confinement. They may be associated with inflammatory 
irritation or not — certainly we fail to discover any morbid changes in 
the skin. There is to some extent a delightful sensation produced by 
rubbing, and it may partly become a habit of pleasure. 

Treatment. — We must place our chief reliance upon a change of food, 
plenty of exercise, and in most cases the administration of an active 
cathartic — 1 to li pounds of Epsom salts, a handful of common salt, a 
tablespoonful of ginger or pepper, mixed with 2 quarts of water, all 
of which is to be given at one dose. Afterward half an ounce of hypo- 
sulphite of soda may be given twice a day for a week, mixed with the 
feed. For an external application, when the skin is abraded or thick- 
ened from rubbing, a solution of borax, 4 ounces to the quart of water, 
may be used. Carbolic acid, J ounce to a quart of water, will give 
relief in some cases. 

INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
ERYTHEMA. 

This is the simplest form of inflammation of tbe skin. It consists of 
an increased redness, which may occur in patches or involve consider- 
able surface. The red coloration disappears when pressed upon by the 
finger, but soon returns again after the pressure is removed. There is 
seldom much swelling of the affected part, though often a glutinous 
discharge may be noticed, which dries and mats the hair or forms a 
thin scale upon the skin. In simple erythema the epidermis alone is 
affected; when it becomes chronic, fissures form, wbich extend into the 
corium or true skin. 

Erythema is divided into Erythema simplex, E. chronieum, and E. 
intertrigo. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 329 

Causes. — Erythema simplex, consisting of an inflammatory irritation, 
is witnessed in very young calves, in which the navel leaks. The 
discharge being urine, it causes an irritation of the surrounding 
skin. Erythema intertrigo is that condition known as chafing, and is 
occasionally seen on the udder of cows from chafing by the legs; chaf- 
ing between the legs is not uncommon among fat steers. Erythema 
chronicum, or mammillarum, is found in the form of chapped teats of 
cows and chapped lips in suckling calves. It frequently occurs in cows 
when they are turned out in winter directly after milking, and in others 
from chafing by the calf in sucking. Some cows are peculiarly subject 
to sore teats. The fissures when neglected in the early stage of forma- • 
tion become deep, very painful, often bleeding at the slightest touch, 
and cause the animal to become a kicker when milked in that condition. 
Occasionally the lower portions of the legs become irritated and chapped 
when cattle are fed in- a muddy or wet yard in winter, or if they are 
compelled to wade through water in frosty weather. 

Treatment. — In ordinary cases of erythema, the removal of the cause 
and the application of benzoated oxide of zinc ointment, carbolized 
cosmoline, or a mixture of creolin, 1 ounce to a pint of water, applied 
a few times, will restore the skin to a healthy condition. 

When there are fissures the zinc ointment is the best. If at the teats, 
a milk syphon (Plate xxiv, Fig. 4) should be used instead of milking 
by hand, and the calf, if there is one suckled, should be taken away. 
When the calf's mouth is affected it should be fed by hand. When the 
legs are irritated or chapped, dry stabling for a few days and the appli- 
cation of tar ointment will soon heal them. 

URTICARIA — NETTLE RASH — SURFEIT. 

This is a mild inflammatory affection of the skin, characterized by 
sudden development of patches of various sizes, from that of a nickel 
to as large as the hand. The patches of raised skin are marked by an 
abrupt border, and are irregular in form. All the swelling may disap- 
pear in a few hours, or it may go away in one place and reappear on 
another part of the body. It is always accompanied by a great desire 
to rub the affected part. In its simplest type, as just described, it 
is never followed by any" serous exudation, or eruptions, unless the 
surface of the skin becomes abraded from scratching or rubbing. 
Another type of urticaria, known as lichen urticatus, by some writers 
designated prurigo vernalis or si}ring itch, is manifested by the erup- 
tion of small vesicles upon the swollen parts of the skin. These dis- 
appear more slowly and are followed by loss of the hair of the affected 
areas. This form of the disease is more apt than the former to become 
scattered over the whole body. Its duration greatly depends upon the 
presence or the removal of the exciting cause. Occasionally the 
relapses are so frequent that it finally becomes a chronic disorder. 

Causes. — Derangements of the digestive organs are the most common 



330 DISEASES OE CATTLE. 

causes, such as overloading the stomach when the animal is turned out 
to graze in the spring, certain constituents of food and high feeding 
among fattening stock. When the kidneys are functionally deranged 
urticaria may appear. Spinal irritation and other nervous affections 
may cause it. 

Treatment. — Administer a full dose of Epsom salts. Give soft, easily 
digested food, and wash the affected parts with a solution of bicarbon- 
ate of soda — common baking soda — 8 ounces to the gallon of water twice 
a day. If it assumes a persistent tendency, give a tablespoonful of the 
following powder in the feed three times a day: Cream of tartar, sul- 
phur, and nitrate of potash, equal parts by weight, mix. A tablespoon- 
ful of Fowler's solution of arsenic may be given in drinking water 
once a day, if the case has assumed a chronic or recurrent character. 

ECZEMA. 

Eczema is a noncontagious inflammation of the skin, characterized 
by any or all of the results of inflammation at once or in succession, 
such as erythema, vesicles, or pustules, accompanied by more or less 
infiltration and itching, terminating in a watery discharge, with the 
formation of crusts or in scaling off. The disease may run an acute 
course and then disappear, or it may become chronic ; therefore, two 
varieties are recognized, vesicular or pustular, and chronic eczema. 

Causes. — Eczema is not so common among cattle as in horses and in 
dogs, in which it is the most common of all skin diseases. Among cat- 
tle it is occasionally observed under systems of bad hygiene, filthiness, 
lousiness, overcrowding, overfeeding, excessively damp or too warm sta- 
bles. It is found to develop now and then in cattle that are fed upon 
sour substances, distillery swill, house or garden garbage, etc. Localized 
eczema may be caused by irritant substances applied to the skin — tur- 
pentine, ammonia, the essential oils, mustard, Spanish fly ointment, 
etc. Occasionally an eruption with vesiculation of the skin has been 
induced by the excessive use of mercurial preparations for the destruc- 
tion of lice. 

Symptoms. — In accordance with the variety of symptoms during the 
progress, of the disease we may divide it into different stages or periods. 

(1) Swelling and increased heat of the skin; the formation of vesicles, 
which are circumscribed, rounded elevations of the epidermis, varying 
in size from a pin head to a split pea, containing a clear, watery fluid; 

(2) exudation of a watery, glutinous fluid, formation of crusts, and some- 
times suppuration, or the formation of vesicles containing pus (pus- 
tules); (3) scaling off (desquamation), with redness, and thickening of 
the skin. From the very beginning of the disease the animal will com- 
mence to rub the affected parts, hence the various stages may not 
always be easily recognized, as the rubbing will produce more or less 
abrasion, thus leaving the skin raw — sometimes bleeding. Neither do 
these symptoms always occur in regular succession, for in some cases 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 331 

the exudation will be most prominent, being very profuse, and serve to 
spread the disorder over a large surface. In other cases the formation 
of incrustations, or rawness of the skin, will be the most striking fea- 
ture. The disease may be limited to certain small areas, or it may be 
diffused over the greater part of the body; the vesicles or pustules may 
be scattered in small clusters, or a large number run together. The 
chronic form is really only a prolongation of the disease, successive 
crops of pustules appearing on various portions of the body, frequently 
invading fresh sections of the skin, while the older surfaces form scabs 
or crusts upon the raw, indurated skin. 

In old standing cases the skin will break, forming fissures, especially 
on portions of the body that bend — the neck and limbs. Thus the dis- 
ease may be prolonged indefinitely. When eczema reaches its latest 
period, either acute or chronic, desquamation of the affected parts is 
the most prominent feature. The formation and shedding of these suc- 
cessive crops of scales constitute the character of the disease frequently 
denominated psoriasis. 

Treatment. — The treatment of eczema is often anything but a pleasant 
task. There is no one method of treatment which will always prove 
successful, no matter how early it is begun, or how small an area is 
involved. We must endeavor to remove the cause by giving attention 
to the general health of the animal and its environment. Feeding 
should be moderate in quantity and not too stimulating in character — 
green feed, bran mashes, ground oats, clean hay, plenty of salt. If the 
animal has been fed too high, give an active purgative — Epsom salts 
preferred — once a week, if necessary, and half an ounce of acetate or 
nitrate of potash may be given in the feed twice a day. If the animal 
is in poor condition and debilitated, give a tablespoonful of the follow- 
ing mixture in feed twice a day: Powdered copperas, gentian, sulphur, 
and sassafras bark, equal parts by weight. If the animal is lousy the 
parasites must be destroyed before the eczema can be cured. The 
external treatment must vary with the character of the lesions ; no 
irritating application is to be made while the disease is in its acute, 
vesicular, or pustular stage, and, in the chronic stage, active stimu- 
lants must be used. Much washing is harmful, yet crusts and scales 
must be removed in order to obtain satisfactory results from the external 
applications. Both objects, however, can be attained by judiciously 
combining the curative agents with such substances as will at the same 
time cleanse the parts. 

In the vesicular stage, when the skin is feverish and the epidermis 
peeling off, exposing the exuding skin, an application of boracic acid 
solution, 2 drams of the acid to 8 ounces of water, will often relieve the 
smarting or itching, and also serve to check the exudation and dry the 
surface. If this fails to have the desired effect use creoliu, 1 ounce to a 
quart of water as a wash, or the black wash, composed of 1 dram of 
calomel to 10 ounces of lime-water. Any of these three washes maybe 



332 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

used several times a day until incrustation is well established. Then 
use creolin, 1 ounce to a pint of sweet oil, or the bcnzoated oxide of 
zinc ointment, giving- the affected surfaces a thorough application once 
a day. When the eczema is not the result of an external irritant it 
takes usually from one to two weeks before the healing is completed. 

In chronic eczema, where there is a succession of scabs or scales, 
indolent sores or fissures, the white precipitate ointment, nitrate of mer- 
cury ointment, or blue ointment, mixed with equal parts of cosmoline 
or fresh lard, may be applied every second day, taking care to protect 
the parts so anointed that the animal can not lick it off. 

In some cases the use of the following mixture will do well : Oil of tar 
one-half ounce, glycerine 1 ounce, alcohol 1 pint. Rub this in after 
cleansing the parts with warm water and soap. The internal admin- 
istration of arsenic often yields excellent results in chronic eczema. 
Take 1 dram of arsenic, 1 dram of carbonate of potash, 1 pint of boiling 
water, and give 1 ounce of this twice a day in water, after feeding. 

IMPETIGO LAEVALIS AND LAEIALIS. 

Impetigo is an inflammatory disease of the skin, characterized by the 
formation of distinct pustules, about the size of a pea or bean, unat- 
tended by itching. The pustules develop from the papular layer of the 
skin, and contain a yellowish white pus. After reaching maturity they 
remain stationary for a few days, then they disappear by absorption 
and dry up into crusts. Later the crusts drop off, leaving upon the skin 
a red spot which soon disappears. Occasionally the crusts remain 
firmly adherent for a long time, or they may be raised up and loosened 
by the formation of matter underneath. The dry crusts usually have a 
brown or black appearance. 

Causes. — Impetigo larvalis generally affects sucking calves only, in 
which the disease appears upon the lips, nostrils, and face. It is attribu- 
ted to some irritant substance contained in the mother's milk. Impet- 
igo labialis et facialis generally is witnessed among grazing animals, 
regardless of age, and it especially attacks animals with white hair and 
skin. The mouth, face, and limbs become covered with pustules, Avhich 
may rupture in a few hours, followed by rapid and successive incrusta- 
tions; the scabs frequently coalesce, covering a large surface; pus may 
form under them, and the whole thickness of the skin become involved 
in the morbid process. This form of the disease is attributed to the 
local irritant properties of plants growing in the pasture, such as St. 
John's wort ( Hypericum perforatum), smartweed (Polygonum hydro- 
piper), vetches, honeydew, etc. Buckwheat, at the time the seeds 
become ripe, is said to have caused it, also bedding with buckwheat 
straw. 

Treatment. — Sucking calves should be removed from the mother, and 
the latter should have a purgative to divert the poisonous substance 
secreted with the milk. When the more formidable disease among 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 333 

grazing cattle appears the pasturage should be changed, and the affected 
parts of the animal thoroughly anointed once a day with sweet oil, con- 
taining 2 drains of carbolic acid to the pint. This should be continued 
until the crusts soften and begin to drop off, then the parts may be 
thoroughly cleansed with warm water and soap. Subsequently apply 
the white precipitate ointment or carbolized cosinoline daily until the 
parts are healed. 

ECTHYMA. 

This is an affection characterized by the formation of one or more 
large, isolated, fiat pustules, situated upon an inflamed base. They 
occur mostly where the skin is thin and unprotected by hair on the 
udder, inside of thighs, and on or about the external genital organs. 

Causes. — Disorder of the blood in debilitated conditions of the system ; 
occasionally as the result of septic infection, by discharges following 
imperfect or tedious cleansing after calving. 

Symptoms. — Large round or oval flattened pustules form, from the 
size of a pea to that of a chestnut. They are yellowish in color, sur- 
rounded by a red sensitive margin. Afterwards the pustules become 
reddish from admixture with blood, and soon dry into brown, flat 
crusts. The duration of each pustule may extend over a period of two 
weeks ; meanwhile new ones form, until the cause is removed. 

Ecthyma differs from impetigo in the size of the pustules and crust, 
and differs from boils in not having a core in the center. 

Treatment. — General tonic treatment internally. Eemoval of offend- 
ing discharges and disinfection of the affected region, by frequent 
bathing with creolin, 1 ounce to a pint of water. Open each pustule 
as soon as it forms and cauterize the bottom with nitrate of silver, or 
dilute liquor nitrate of mercury. If crusts are present they must be 
soaked loose by frequent applications of oil or lard, and then treated 
with carbolized cosinoline until the skin is restored to health. 

PEMPHIGUS — WATER BLISTERS. 

This is an inflammatory disease of the skin, characterized by succes- 
sive formations of rounded, irregularly-shaped water blisters, varying 
in size from a pea to a hen's egg. 

Causes. — Ob scur e . 

/Symptoms. — The formation of a blister is preceded by a congestion 
or swelling of the skin. Yellowish-colored water collects beneath the 
cuticle, which raises the latter from its bed in the form of a blister. 
The blisters appear in a succession of crops ; as soon as one crop dis- 
appears another forms. They usually occur in clusters, each one being 
distinct, or they may coalesce. Each crop usually runs its course in a 
week. Itching or burning sensations attend this disease, which cause 
the animal to rub, thereby frequently producing excoriations and for- 
mation of crust on the affected region. 



334 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Treatment. — Give a tablespoonful of the following mixture in feed 
twice a day: Saltpeter, cream of tartar, and sulphur, equal parts by 
weight. The blisters should be opened as soon as formed, to allow the 
escape of the serum, then apply a wash composed of chloride of zinc, 1 
dram to 15 ounces of water. When there is any formation of crusts 
apply carbolized cosmoline. 

FURUNCULUS — BOILS. 

This is an acute affection of the skin, usually involving its whole 
thickness, characterized by the formation of one or more abscesses, orig- 
inating generally in a sebaceous gland, sweat-gland, or hair follicle. 
They usually terminate by absorption, or by the formation of a central 
core, which sloughs out, leaving a deep round cavity that soon heals. 

Causes. — Impoverished state of the blood, the result of kidney dis- 
eases, or of local friction, or contusions. 

Symptoms. — Boils in cattle usually appear singly, not in clusters; 
they may attain the size of a hen's egg. The abscess begins as a small 
round nodule, painful to pressure, gradually increases in size until death 
of the central portion takes place, then the surface of the skin gives 
way to internal pressure, and the core is released and expelled. Con- 
stitutional symptoms are generally absent, unless the boils occur in 
considerable numbers, or by their size involve a great amount of tissue. 

Treatment. — Poulticing to ripen the abscess. If this can not be 
done, apply comphorated oil two or three times a day until the core is 
formed. As soon as the central or most prominent part becomes soft, 
the abscess should be opened to release the core. Then use carbolized 
cosmoline once a day until the healing is completed. If the animal is 
in poor condition give tonics — copperas, gentian, ginger, and sulphur, 
equal parts by weight, one tablespoonful twice a day. If the animal 
manifests a feverish condition of the system, administer half an ounce 
of saltpeter twice a day, continuing it several days or a week. 

FAULTY SECRETIONS AND ABNORMAL GROWTHS OF THE SKIN. 
PITYRIASIS — SEBORRHCE A — DANDRUFF — SCURF. 

This is a condition characterized by an excessive secretion of sebace- 
ous matter, forming upon the skin in small crusts or scales. 

Causes. — It is due to a functional derangement of the sebaceous 
glands, usually accompanied by dryness and loss of pliancy of the skin. 
The animal is hidebound, as it is commonly termed, thin in flesh, 
inclined to rub, and very frequently lousy. The condition is observed 
most often towards the spring of the year. Animals that are contin- 
ually housed, the skins of which receive no cleaning, generally present 
a coat filled with fine scales, composed of epithelium from the epider- 
mis and dried sebaceous matter. This, however, is a physiological con* 
dition, and conrpatible with perfect health. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 335 

Symptoms. — Pityriasis may affect the greater portion of the body, 
though usually only certain parts are affected — the ears, neck, rump, 
etc. The skin becomes scurfy, the hairy coat filled with bran-like, 
gray, or whitish scales. 

Treatment. — Nutritious food, such as oil- cake meal, bran, ground oats, 
and clean hay. In the spring it generally disappears after the animal 
is turned out to pasture. When lice are present they should be 
destroyed. 

ELEPHANTIASIS — SCLERODERMA. 

This condition consists in a chronic thickening of the skin, which may 
affect one or more limbs, or involve the whole integument. It is char- 
acterized by recurrent attacks of swelling of the skin and subcutane- 
ous areolar tissue. After each attack the affected parts remain infil- 
trated to a larger extent than before, until finally the skin may attain 
a thickness of an inch, become wrinkled and fissured. This disease is 
confined to hot climates. The predisposing cause is unknown. 

(EDEMA — ANASARCA OF THE SKIN. 

This is a dropsical condition of the skin and subcutaneous areolar 
tissue, characterized by pitting under pressure, the fingers leaving a 
dent which remains a short time. 

Causes. — OEdema generally results from a weakened state of the sys- 
tem, arising from previous disease. It may also be dependent upon a 
functional derangement of the kidneys. Occasionally I have seen very 
large cedeniatous swellings beneath the lower jaw without being able 
to discover the cause. 

Symptoms. — Sudden painless swelling of a limb, udder, lower surface 
of abdomen, or lower jaw becomes apparent. This may increase in 
dimensions for several clays, or may attain its maximum in less than 
twenty-four hours. Unless complicated with some acute disease of a 
specific character, there is not much if any constitutional disturbance. 
The deep layer of the skin is infiltrated with serum, which gives it the 
characteristic condition of pitting under pressure. 

Treatment. — When the cause can be ascertained and removed, we 
will have a reasonable expectation of seeing the oedema disappear. 
When no direct specific cause can be discovered, and the animal is 
debilitated, give general tonics. If, on the contrary, it is in good flesh, 
give a purgative, followed by half an ounce of acetate of potash twice a 
day. External applications are useless. 

(Edema may be distinguished from erysipelas or anthrax by the 
absence of pain and fever. 

DERMAPILOUS AND SEBACEOUS CYSTS — WENS. 

A dermapilous cyst is formed by an involution of the skin, with a 
growth of hair on the inner wall of the sac. It may become imbedded 
deeply in the tissues subcutaneously, or may just penetrate the thick' 



336 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

ness of the skin, where it is movable and painless. They are generally 
found within the ear or at its base, although they may form on any 
part of the body. Usually they have a small opening, from which a 
thick, cheesy matter can be squeezed out. The rational treatment is 
to dissect them out. 

Sebaceous cysts appear not unlike the former. They are formed by a 
dilatation of the hair follicle and sebaceous duct within the skin, and 
contain a gray or yellowish sebaceous mass. The tumor may attain 
the size of a cherry-stone or a walnut. Generally they are round, 
movable, and painless, soft or doughy in consistency, and covered with 
skin and hair. They develop slowly. The best treatment is to dissect 
out the sac with contents entire. 

VERRUCA — "WARTS. 

Cattle are affected with two varieties of warts. One, the verruca 
vulgaris, is composed of a cluster of enlarged papillae, covered with a 
thickened epidermis, the number of papillae determining the breadth 
and their length its height. They are generally circular in figure, 
slightly roughened on the surface, and spring from the skin by a broad 
base. Occasionally large numbers of very thin, long, pedunculated 
warts grow from the skin of the ear, lips, about the eyes, and vulva. 
Another variety, the verruca acuminata, sometimes erroneously denomi- 
nated epithelial cancers, are irregularly shaped elevations, tufted, or 
club-shaped, occasionally existing as thick, short, fleshy excrescences, 
giving the growth the appearance of granulation tissue. Their color 
is red or purplish, and oftentimes by friction they become raw and 
bleeding, emitting then a very offensive odor. They usually grow in 
clusters and their development is rapid. I once treated a two-year-old 
steer in which the back part of both forelegs were covered with these 
excrescences, some as large as a goose-egg. Many of them presented 
a raw, bleeding surface; others had a perfectly smooth surface, devoid 
of hair. 

Causes. — An abnormal nutrition of the skin, determined by increased 
energy of growth operating upon a healthy skin; at other times upon 
a weak or impoverished skin. 

Treatment. — When they are small and pedunculated they may be 
snipped off with shears, and the stump touched with nitrate of silver. 
When they are broad and flattened they can be dissected out, and the 
wound cauterized, if necessary. If they are large and very vascular 
they may be ligated, one by one, by taking a strong cord and tying it 
as firmly around the base as possible. They will then shrivel, die, and 
drop off. If there is a tendency to grow again apply a red-hot iron, or 
nitric acid with a glass rod. 

KELTS. 

Kelis is an irregularly-shaped flat tumor of the skin, resulting from 
hypertrophy — increased growth of the fibrous tissue of the coriuin, pro- 
ducing absorption of the papillary layer. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 337 

Causes. — It may arise spontaneously, or follow a scar after an injury. 

Symptoms. — Kelis generally appears below the knee or hock. It may 
occur singly or in numbers. There are no constitutional symptoms. 
Its growth is very slow, and seldom causes any inconvenience. It 
appears as a flattened, irregular or spreading growth within the sub- 
stance of the skin, is hard to the touch, and is especially characterized 
by divergent branches or roots ; hence the name is derived from its 
resemblance to a crab. Occasionally some part of it may soften and 
result in an abscess. It may grow several inches in length, and encircle 
the whole limb. 

Treatment. — So long as no inconvenience is manifested by the animal 
it is best not to meddle with it; when it does, the animal ought to be 
fattened for beef, the meat being perfectly harmless to the consumer. 

PAEASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
SCABIES — ACARIASIS— MANGE — ITCH. 

Mange is a disease of a local nature, due to a mite, which induces 
irritation and incrustation on the surface of the body generally. It is 
always contagious, requiring for its development the transplantation 
of the parasites or their eggs from the diseased to the healthy animal. 
This disease is not very common among cattle in this country, while in 
some countries it prevails as an epizootic. Poor hygiene appears to 
favor the extension of the disease, and it is claimed that weakened cat- 
tle are more predisposed to harbor the parasite than strong, healthy 
ones. It is also more prevalent in winter than in summer, and in the 
latter season sometimes entirely disappears. 

Cattle are afflicted with two varieties of these parasites. They 
belong to the class Arachnidce; genera, Psoroptes (Dermatodectes) which 
simply bite, and hold on to the skin; and Chorioptes (symbiotes) living 
together in large families, and not piercing further than the cuticle in 
search of food. 

Psoroptes communis var. bovis (Syn. Dermatodectes communis, Der- 
matocoptes communis). — This is the most frequent one met in cattle. 
It lives on the surface of the epidermis, and gives rise to much irrita- 
tion by biting. It generally chooses the regions of the top of the shoul- 
der and root of the tail for its habitation. From these localities it grad- 
ually extends by increase in numbers, causing intense itching and 
great distress in the affected animal. From the irritation of the skin 
papular nodules appear, which develop into vesicles filled with fluid 
and rupture. The drying of the exuding fluid forms crusts, and these 
are liable to be followed by ulceration. The hairs may project up 
through the crust or fall out. In chronic cases the skin becomes thick- 
ened and almost insensible, dry, and wrinkled. As it is easy to con- 
found this disease with eczema, our sole dependence for a correct diag- 
nosis rests upon the discovery of the parasite, or, at least, upon positive 
24G97 22 



338 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

evidence of contagion. The acari can be detected upon the hair and 
surface of the epidermis by the aid of an ordinary magnifying glass, or 
they may be seen with the naked eye as minute white points moving 
about when the infested animal stands in the full glare of the sun on a 
warm day. 

Ghorioptes symbiotes var. bovis (Symbiotes bovis). — This variety of 
the acari rarely affect cattle. They generally live at the base of the 
tail; through neglect they may extend along the back or down upon 
the thighs. This type of mange is not nearly so contagious as the 
former variety, though in all other respects it produces similar effects. 
This variety is best seen by picking off a scab and laying it on a piece 
of white paper, which is then placed in the sun. The next day the 
parasites may be found in clusters. 

Treatment. — It is of the utmost importance to cleanse the skin, 
removing crusts, etc., before the parasites can be effectually eradicated. 
For this purpose use soft soap and warm water, and give the animal a 
thorough scrubbing, especially in regions where the skin has been 
rubbed. If the crusts are not all removed by the first washing, apply 
sweet oil to soften them. They may then be washed off the following 
day. To kill the mites apply thoroughly, with a brush, the following 
mixture: Oreolin, 1 ounce; oil of tar, 1 ounce; soft soap, h, pint; sulphur, 
£ pound; alcohol, 1 pint. Wash it off in two days with soap and water. 
Three or four days later a second application should be made to destroy 
all remaining acari. It is essential that the stable or stalls where 
affected cattle have been should be cleansed and whitewashed, or satu- 
rated with sulphuric acid 1 pint to 3 gallons of water. 

PHTHIRIASIS — LOUSINESS. 

The lice of cattle are of two kinds, the suctorial lice, belonging to 
the family Pediculida3 of the order Hemiptera (sub-order Parasita), 
which are found only upon mammals. The other variety — biting lice — 
belong to the family Philopteridae of the order Pseudoneuroptera (sub- 
order Mallophaga), which attack mammals and fowls. Those belong- 
ing to the first variety are the short-nosed ox-louse — Hcematopinus 
eurysternus — and the long-nosed ox-louse — Hwmatopinus vituli (Syn. H. 
tennirostris). The short-nosed ox-louse is the larger and the harder 
to exterminate. It infests almost exclusively the neck and shoulders, 
and those parts are frequently worn bare by the animal in its efforts 
to rid itself of these tormentors. The full-grown females of the short- 
nosed ox-louse are from one-eighth to one-fifth of an inch long, and fully 
half that in width, while the males are slightly smaller. The males 
have a broad, black stripe running forward from the end of the body 
to near the middle of the abdomen; the females have no indication 
of this stripe. The true pumping organ, as in all the Pediculidae, con- 
sists of a slender piercing tube which may be greatly extended in order 
to reach the blood of the infested animal. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 339 

The females deposit tlieir eggs on the hair, attaching them very near 
the skin by means of an adhesive substance. The long-nosed ox louse 
is the most familiar to cattlemen. The body is about an eighth of an 
inch long, and not more than one-third of that in width. The head is 
very long and slender, and no eyes are visible. In color there is little 
difference in the two species. 

There is but one species of biting lice known to occur on cattle, the 
Triehodectes scalaris. This is very common on cattle. It is very dis- 
tinct from the suctorial species in appearance, and this is readily recog- 
nized by all observers, for it is generally called "the little red louse," 
in contrast with the blue louse. They are also less injurious than the 
former. 

The biting louse possesses a mandibulate mouth, or a mouth provided 
with cutting and biting jaws. They attack the animal along the spine, 
hips, rump, and sometimes the neck and head. 

Symptoms. — Lousiness generally becomes manifest in winter and 
toward spring, when the animal is found to rub the infested portions 
of the body, occasionally to such an extent as to produce excoriations 
of the skin. It becomes thin in flesh and debilitated. A close exami- 
nation will reveal the true state, and prompt attention is advisable. 

Treatment. — The treatment does not vary for the three species, 
although the short-nosed louse is the most difficult to destroy. I have 
been most successful with a decoction of Cocculus Indicus — fish ber- 
ries. Take a half pound for each animal, pound fine, then add two 
quarts of vinegar, and set it on the stove to simmer for an hour. Apply 
this thoroughly by rubbing it well into the hair over the infested 
region. This will not iujure the skin or sicken the animal, and it 
remains effective long enough to kill all the young lice as they are 
hatched from the nits. Prof. Eiley's kerosene emulsion is also very 
effective, and is made as follows : Kerosene, 2 gallons ; common or whale 
oil soap, one-quarter pound; water, 1 gallon. Heat the solution of soap 
and add it boiling hot to the kerosene; churn the mixture for five or ten 
minutes. Dilute the emulsion with eight parts of water, and apply it to 
the animal by a thorough rubbing. Fifty animals can be treated with 
10 gallons of the liquid. 

(ESTBIASIS — WABBLES — GBUB IN THE SKIN. 

Warbles are characterized by tumors in the skin along the back and 
loins of cattle, which contain a grub deposited by the Sypoderma bovis, 
or gadfly. When the cattle are attacked by this fly it is easily known 
by the terror and agitation of the whole herd. The unfortunate object 
of the attack runs bellowing from among the herd to some distant part 
of the field or the nearest water. The tail, from the severity of the 
pain, is held with a tremulous motion straight from the body, and the 
head and neck are stretched out to the utmost. The remainder, from 



340 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

fear generally, follow to the water or run off to different parts of the 
field. 

The larva of this fly, when young, is smooth, white, and transparent; 
as it enlarges it becomes browner, and about the time it is full grown 
it is of a deep brown color. The larva, having attained its full growth 
and size, effects its escape from the abscess in the back of the affected 
animal, and falls to the ground; it then seeks a retreat in which 
to pupate. The puparium is of a dark brown color, narrower at one 
end than at the other, flat on one side, and very round and convex on 
the other. They may remain in this state for about six weeks, when 
the fly appears. The grubs usually escape during the months of May 
and June; occasionally as late as September. Sometimes these warbles 
are very numerous, and cause a great deal of pain and uneasiness in 
the animal, which becomes thin in flesh, hidebound, and feverish; 
more frequently, however, they do no harm, except to the hides. I am 
under the impression that the so-called heel-fly of our southwestern 
States and the gadfly are identical. I have never had an opportunity 
of learning the true history of the former, therefore I can not be 
explicit. 

Treatment. — Whenever cattle have these tumors along the back in 
the winter, it is advisable to enlarge the opening which already exists 
and press out the grub, or it may be caught with the point of a shoe- 
maker's awl and extracted. 

Since writing the foregoing history of the development of the grub, 
I have seen an article written by Dr. Cooper Curtice, published in the 
Journal of Comparative Medicine and Yeterinary Archives, Vol. xii, 
~Ro. 6, in which he details quite a different history concerning the ox- 
warble, viz : He discovered that the Hypoderma bovis is not the common 
species of gadfly that we have in this country, but that it is the Hypo- 
derma Uneata Villers, which is common with us. He says : 

The adult fly lays its eggs somewhere on cattle, presumably the back, by attach- 
ing them to the hairs. This attachment is admirably outlined by the structure, of 
the egg, which is similar to that of the horse botfly, Gastrophilus equi, and by the 
structure of the ovipositor, which is not adapted for boring. While some authors 
have contended that the egg is laid in the skin others have conclusively shown that 
this is not the case. * * * Development takes place within the egg while yet 
attached to the hair. * * * From this point on my version of the life history 
varies from that of others until the larva has arrived at its destination in the cysts, 
under the skin, which open to the air through the hide. * * * It has been stated 
by various authorities that the young grub emerging from the shell bored its way 
through the skin until it reached the subcutaneous tissue, and thus made its chan. 
nel. From circumstantial evidence I believe that the embryos are licked by the cattle 
and swallowed, or lodged in the back of the mouth or oesophagus. This theory is 
based on the appearance of the cattle grubs in the walls of the oesophagus in No- 
vember, long before they are found in the backs of cattle in this locality. Later, 
about Christmas time, the grubs appear suddenly, and in full force under the skin 
of the back. At their first appearance under the skin they are as large as those 
found in the oesophagus at that time, and differ in nowise from them. By the latter 
part of January or early in February all have disappeared from the oesophagus, to- 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 341 

getherwith all traces of inflammatory action in that organ so observable in January. 
The earliest grub holes that I have been able to find are very uniform in size, corre- 
sponding with the caliber of the grubs contained in them, and had no appearance of 
the sac which forms later. The walls were rough as if gnawed, and the hole was 
cylindrical to near the epidermis, when it suddenly contracted. Now the freshness 
of the wound and the absence of inflammatory action is a very good index of the 
recent date of the wound, for when the wound is exposed to the air germs are sure 
to enter, a sac grows and secretes pus. Were the wound of a more remote date it 
would be of quite another character, as every pathologist will admit. Just preced- 
ing the time when one is able to find the young warbles in the skin, that condition 
known to butchers as "lick" appears. The "lick" is nothing more than an effusion 
of serum into the connective tissue membrane, and is produced by the inflammation 
set up by the wanderings of the young grabs. This effusion can also be found in 
the walls of the oesophagus, just prior to the final disappearance of the grubs. The 
disappearance of the "licks" from the tissues underlying that portion of the hide 
most infested, the saddle, is followed by finding the grubs in sacs in the first and 
second cutaneous stages. When the sacs are well formed the " licks " have disap- 
peared. These "licks" are' said by farmers and butchers to be caused by cattle 
licking themselves. It is easy to understand, however, that the cattle lick them- 
selves at this time on account of the irritation produced by the grubs in piercing 
through the sensitive skin. The appearance of "lick" in those parts where the 
force of the tongue could not reach, as in the oesophagus, an appearance which has 
been my guide to the grub and its vicinity, is quite good proof that the grubs cause 
"lick." 

BUFFALO GNAT — SIMULIUM PECUAEUM. 

This is a small fly inhabiting the lower Mississippi Valley, and proves 
a great scourge to cattle in that region. The term buffalo gnat is derived 
from their supposed resemblance to that animal. It has a large hump- 
backed thorax, with a head supplied with two antennae-like small horns. 
It belongs to the order diptera, family simulidce. The perfect fly varies 
in length from 3 mTn to 4.5 mm , the females being usually the larger. They 
are characterized by their peculiar short and thick shape; the head is 
bent under, and is nearly as wide as the very large and humped thorax. 
The thick antennae are composed of twelve stout joints ; the four-jointed 
palpi terminate in long and fine joints; the posterior shanks and the 
first joint of the hind tarsi are somewhat dilated. The free labrum is 
as sharp as a dagger, and the very prominent proboscis is well adapted 
for drawing blood. The insects possess no ocelli, but their eyes are 
large. In the male they join at the forehead, but in the female they 
are farther apart. The mouth organs of the male are not so well devel- 
oped as in the female, being soft and unable to draw blood. The bodies 
of these gnats are quite hard and can resist considerable pressure. 
The color of the southern buffalo gnat is black, but covered with grayish- 
brown, short, and silken hairs, which are arranged upon the thorax in 
such a manner as to show three parallel longitudinal black stripes. 
The abdomen is more densely covered with similar hairs, and shows, 
furthermore, a dorsal broad, whitish stripe, which widens towards the 
posterior end. The legs are more reddish, but also covered with hairs 
of the same color as elsewhere. The balancers are yellowish- white and 



342 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the wings ample. These pests are migratory, or are driven in swarms 
by the wind, hence they appear in localities remote from their breeding 
place. They have been seen as far north as Jackson County, 111., and 
Daviess County, Ind. As a rule, however, they are restricted to the 
counties bordering on the Mississippi Eiver, from St. Louis, Mo., to Red 
Eiver in Louisiana. Arkansas appears to be their great breeding place, 
and nearly the whole State is more or less afflicted with them, especially 
along the streams and valleys. Occasionally they extend their flight 
into southeastern Kansas. Overflows of the Mississippi, occurring in 
March, April and May, are generally soon followed by dense swarms. 
This pest has been known as far back as the earliest settlements of 
Kentucky and Tennessee. The appearance of the buffalo gnats occurs 
each year with the continuous warm weather of spring, when they may 
be seen to gather in swarms on the vegetation along the confluent 
streams of the Mississippi, and from thence are drifted about by the 
winds, and carried sometimes for long distances. At first the members 
of a swarm are very blood-thirsty, but they soon begin to die off until 
allhave disappeared. The duration of an invasion of the infested region 
varies from a few days to five or six weeks. Cold weather renders them 
dormant, until the warmth of the sun revivifies them again, while very 
hot weather kills them. When these gnats have filled themselves with 
blood from an animal they soon die. The females alone leave their 
breeding place, the males always remain. In their migration they select 
certain places, generally low and wet ground ; exposed sunny spots are 
shunned. Some years they prove very disastrous to the stockowners in 
the infested regions, and as they do not appear each year in the same 
place they often swarm in upon a wooded pasture, or attack cattle pass- 
ing along the road, which become worn out from the attack before 
they can be brought to a safe place. They are most active in the early 
morning and evening, exceedingly quick in their movements, and almost 
noiseless. When they are very numerous they cover the whole animal 
without regard to position ; thus when cattle are weakened from ex- 
posure during winter, and by scarcity of feed, they succumb easily. 
When cattle are attacked they attempt to run away from them, and 
generally aim to reach brushwood or thickets in order to rub off their 
tormentors. If near water they plunge into that, and remain in it until 
the gnats leave the place, or the animal becomes pinched with hunger. 
Animals which have a smooth, short coat are not so badly punished as 
those with long hair. The bites of a few gnats will not affect the animal 
seriously, but when attacked by swarms they rapidly weaken from loss 
of blood and shock, and may die subsequently from exhaustion or blood 
poisoning. The fatality is much greater among mules than cattle. 
Their mode of attack is to follow the hair to the skin, plunge their stout 
beaks into it, and fill themselves with blood; they then drop off, and 
die within twenty-four hours. The place of puncture "on the animal is 
marked by a drop of blood which oozes from the wound. Their breed- 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 343 

ing places are the tributaries to large rivers or streams ; they select 
places where the Avater runs slowly. The eggs are deposited by the 
females just above the water's edge, upon any object projecting above 
the water; they are mostly deposited in the forenoon, hatched out in a 
few hours and the larvae fall into the stream. These larvae congregate 
in swift water, where they live for nearly a year. Then they spin a 
tough brown cocoon, with the upper end open, within which they become 
transformed into pupse, and in about ten days emerge as adult gnats. 

Treatment. — When an animal has been weakened by an attack of 
these gnats, give from 1 to 2 drams of carbonate of ammonia in 4 
ounces of whisky every four hours. Keep the animal in a cool, dark 
place. Occasional immersion in cold water has been beneficial. 

Prevention. — Smoke from fires built of wet wood, burning leather, tar, 
rags, etc., has proved the most practical for the purpose of keeping them 
at a distance. As soon as the gnats appear build a fire, make as much 
smoke as you can, and drive the cattle close up to it, where they will 
remain as long as the pest is about. Whenever it can be done, stabling 
the cattle during the day and turning them out from late in the even- 
ing until early morning will be a reasonably safe measure to adopt. 
Cotton-seed oil mixed with tar, fish oil, kerosene, or carbolic acid, 
applied to the cattle twice a day will protect them to a very great 
extent. 

HJEMATOBIA SERRATA — HORN-ELY. 

This is a small black fly, which first appeared in sufficient numbers 
to attract attention in this country in the year 1887. In that year they 
appeared in the counties adjoining Philadelphia, Pa. In the following 
year they extended into Maryland, and a year later reached the Dis- 
trict of Columbia and Virginia. They attack cattle in the fields by 
piercing their skin and sucking the blood. When they are present in 
large numbers they collect upon the roots of the horns, along the top 
of the neck, or under the belly, thus proving a veritable pest among cat- 
tle in the infested regions. From the fact that they congregate upon 
the bases of the horns when they are at rest they have received the 
popular name of "horn-fly." They appear with the warm weather of 
spring — the early part of May — and disappear after the first severe 
frost in the fall. The flies are observed in the greatest numbers during 
July. The characteristic habit of clustering about the base of the horn 
seems to exist only when the flies are quite abundant. When they 
average only a hundred or so to a single animal comparatively few will 
be found on the horns. Moreover, as a general thing, the horn-cluster- 
ing habit seems to be more predominant earlier in the season than later, 
although the flies may seem to be nearly as numerous. The clustering 
upon the horns, although it has excited considerable alarm, is not pro- 
ductive of the slightest harm to the animal. The flies assume two char- 
acteristic positions, one while feeding and the other while resting. It 
is the resting position in which they are always found when upon the 



344 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

horns. In this position the wings are held nearly flat down the back, 
overlapping at base and diverging only moderately at tip; the beak is 
held in a nearly horizontal position, and the legs are not widely spread. 
In the active sucking position, however, the wings are slightly elevated 
and are held out from the body, not at right angles, but approaching 
it. The legs are spread out widely, and the beak, inserted in the skin 
of the animal, is held in nearly a perpendicular position. The fly, before 
inserting its beak, has worked its way through the hairs close to the 
skin. While feeding, however, the hair, which can be seen over its 
body, does not seem to interfere with its speedy flight when alarmed, 
for a fling of the tail or an impatient turn of the head will cause the 
flies to rise instantly in a cloud for a foot or two, returning as quickly 
again and resuming their former positions. The horns are not the only 
resting places, for with the horns covered by them for two inches above 
their base, toward nightfall vast numbers will also settle upon the neck 
where they can not be reached by the head or tail. When feeding they 
are found over the back and flanks and on the legs. During a rain 
storm they flock beneath the belly. When the animal is lying down a 
favorite place of attack seems to be under the thigh, and belly around 
the bag. With certain animals the dewlap becomes badly attacked, 
while in others this portion of the body is about exempt. Certain cat- 
tle, again, will be covered with flies and will lose condition rapidly, 
while others are but slightly affected. 

The amount of injury done by this pest is not so very great; it is 
stated that the flies alone will never cause the death of an animal. They 
reduce the condition of stock considerably, and in the case of milch 
cows the yield of milk is reduced from one-fourth to one-half. Their 
bites seldom produce sores by themselves, but large sores have been 
made by the cattle in rubbing themselves against trees, fences, etc., in an 
endeavor to allay the irritation caused by the bites, or in spots where 
they could not rub by licking constantly with the tongue, as about the 
udder and on the inside of the thighs. These sores are usually difficult 
to heal, as from the continued irritation by the flies and the repeated 
licking by the animal, the sore is maintained. 

Treatment. — Almost any greasy substance applied to the skin and 
horns of the animal will keep the flies off for several days. For this 
purpose common axle-grease, whale oil, carbolized oil, etc., may be 
used. 

Prevention. — The flies are propagated from eggs laid in the droppings 
of cattle by the female flies. Thus a new generation of flies is pro- 
duced about every two weeks. It is recommended by Prof. 0. V. Riley, 
entomologist for the U. S. Department of Agriculture, that a spadeful of 
lime should be placed upon each dropping of the cattle in the field, to 
destroy the larvae after they leave the egg, and previous to their trans- 
formation into the fly. By doing this twice a week the number of sub- 
sequent flies could be materially lessened, possibly the pest altogether 
eradicated. 



DISEASES OF THE SKItf. 345 

TICKS — IXODES. 

There are several species of ticks that attach themselves to cattle. 
The most common in this country is the Boophilus bovis. (Plates xliy.) 
They are most numerous on uncultivated land, prairies, and woodland. 
They attach themselves to cattle on the thighs, flank, and neck, where 
they fill themselves with blood and then drop to the ground. They 
bore into the skin and cause considerable irritation of the parts. They 
may be destroyed by the application of oil or grease which kills them 
by occluding their breathing pores. When they are carelessly pulled 
off by hand the head sometimes breaks off and remains in the skin, 
causing a suppurating sore and possibly septic infection of the animal. 

FLEAS — PULEX IRRITANS AND SARCOPSYLLA PENETRANS. 

The Pulex irritans, the common flea, penetrates the cuticle with a pair 
of very fine sharp lancets attached to its head, and draws blood from the 
animal. They become annoying to cattle when they are present in 
great numbers, and cause a diminution of milk. 

The Sarcopsylla penetrans, the chigre, met with in some of the west- 
ern States, burrows beneath or within the skin, and deposits its eggs, 
causing the animal to rub the parts. A small vesicle may form, suc- 
ceeded occasionally by the formation of a small ulcer. 

Treatment. — When fleas or chigres cause much annoyance to cattle it 
can be prevented by moistening their skin every morning with tobacco 
juice or carbolic-acid water — 1 ounce of the acid to 2 quarts of water. 

FLIES AND MOSQUITOS. 

These may become dangerous to cattle in sections where malignant 
anthrax prevails, as they may be the carriers of poison from the diseased 
or dead animal to the healthy one. 

The tsetse fly (Glossina morsitans) of Africa is very destructive to 
cattle, their sting causing death in many cases. Maggots hatched from 
the eggs deposited by flies upon wounds frequently are very annoying 
to the animal, and retard the healing process. The maggots from the 
screw-worm fly (Luclllia macellariaj burrow in wounds and cause 
increased inflammation, and have been known to cause the death of 
cattle. When maggots or screw worms appear on wounds of the skin, 
be they deep or superficial, no time should be lost in getting rid of them. 
The application of turpentine or carbolized water — 1 ounce to a pint — 
should be used to destroy the vermin, and the wound afterward cov- 
ered with tar to keep the flies away. 

RINGWORM — TINEA TONSURANS AND TINEA FAVOSA. 

Eingworm is an affection of the skin, due to a vegetable parasite. 
Tinea tonsurans is due to the presence of a minute or microscopic fun- 
gus — the Trichophyton tonsurans. It affects the hair and the epidermic 



346 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

layer of the skin, and is highly contagions, being readily transmitted 
from one animal to another. This fungus consists of spores and fila- 
ments. The spores being the most numerous are round, nucleated, and 
seldom vary much in size. They are very abundant in the hair follicle. 
The filaments are articulated, waving, and contain granules. This dis- 
ease is productive of changes in the root and shaft of the hair, render- 
ing them brittle and easily broken off. 

Symptoms. — This disease becomes manifested by the formation of cir- 
cular patches on the skin, which soon become denuded of hair. The 
cuticular layer of the skin is slightly inflamed, and vesication with 
exudation occurs, followed by the formation of scaly, brittle crusts 
The patches appear silvery gray when incrusted, and are mostly con. 
fined to the head and neck. It is a common disease among young cat- 
tle in the winter and spring. Very early in the development of the 
patches the hairs split, twist, and break off close to the skin. This 
disease is attended with more or less itching. It is communicable to 
man. 

Tinea favosa is due to another fungus, the Acliorion Sclwnleinii. This 
enters tbe hair follicle and involves the cuticle surrounding it, small 
crusts from which increase in diameter and thickness and then become 
elevated at their margin, forming a cup-shaped scab, the favus cup, 
which gives the disease its distinctive character. The number of these 
cups varies from a few to many hundreds. The hairs involved become 
brittle and broken, fall off with the crusts, leaving small bald patches. 
The crusts are of a pale or sulphur yellow color at first; as they grow 
older they turn darker, or to a brown color. This form of ringworm has 
a peculiar odor, resembling that of mice or musty straw. It is occa- 
sionally communicated to cattle by man, mice, cats, etc., all being sub- 
ject to this disease. 

Treatment. — Eemove all crusts by washing with soap and water, then 
apply acetic acid, sulphur ointment, or nitrate of mercury ointment 
once a day. Cleanse the stable and whitewash it to destroy the spores 
scattered by the crusts. 

WOUNDS OF THE SKIN". 
SNAKE-BITES. 

Three varieties of snakes are poisonous in this country — the Grotalus 
or rattlesnake, Trigonocephaly or cotton-mouth, and the Ulaps fulvius, 
a small snake of the South. Snake bites on cattle generally occur 
about the head, feet, or limbs. A close inspection will reveal the marks 
where the fangs of the reptile entered the skin. When the poison has 
been freely ejected in the wound excessive pain is soon manifested, 
quickly followed by swelling, which diffuses itself extensively over 
the surrounding surface. The tumefaction is doughy to the touch 
and of a purple color. Extreme prostration sets in and the animal may 



DISEASES OF TflE SKIN. 347 

soon become partly unconscious; the body becomes cold, and the pulse- 
beats almost imperceptible; finally the heart fails completely and the 
animal dies. Generally, however, the poison is not sufficiently active 
to cause death, but the recovery from its effects will be slow. Large 
abscesses and sloughs may form, which will require along time to heal, 
or end in the exhaustion and death of the victim. 

Treatment. — Powerful diffusible stimulants are indicated to maintain 
life until the first impression or shock of the poison has passed away. 
For this purpose whisky is given in pint doses every fifteen or twenty 
minutes, until it arouses the sinking vitality. Aqua ammonia in 1 
ounce doses, diluted with 2 quarts of water, may be substituted for the 
whisky. External treatment should consist in cauterization of the 
wound by plunging a red-hot pointed iron into it as deeply as the situ- 
ation of the wound will permit. Gashes an inch long should be cut 
into the skin over the swollen part, for the purpose of draining the 
blood away and lessening the danger of extensive subsequent slough- 
ing. Afterwards keep the parts well painted with tincture of iodine. 

VENOMOUS STINGS. 

These may be inflicted by scorpions, tarantulas, wasps, bees, hornets, 
etc. Occasionally an animal may be stung by a wasp or bumble-bee 
and owing to some peculiar state of the blood of the animal the injured 
skin will swell and form a painful enlargement. If stung by a swarm 
of bees the animal may become very sick and prostrated. The external 
application of sugar of lead water, 1 ounce to the pint, will usually 
relieve the pain and swelling. When the animal suffers constitution- 
ally, 2 drams of carbonate of ammonia or 4 ounces of whisky should 
be administered every 2 hours until the animal rallies from the shock. 

BURNS AND SCALDS. 

This is a rare accident among cattle, yet in cases of fire it may occur. 
The application of heat, whether dry or moist, unless sufficient instantly 
to destroy the life of a part, is always followed by the development of 
vesicles or blisters, which contain a thin, watery fluid. The blisters 
may be isolated and not very large, or one blister may cover a very 
large surface. When the burn is very severe the skin may be wholly 
devitalized, or the injury may extend into the deeper structures beneath 
the skin. Then sloughs will occur, followed by a contraction of the 
parts in healing; if on a limb this may render the animal stiff. When 
the burn or scald has been a severe one the resulting pain is great and 
the constitutional disturbance very marked. 

Treatment. — For a superficial burn use a mixture of equal parts of 
limewater and hnseed oil, or common white paint — white lead ground 
in oil. This will exclude the atmosphere and protect the inflamed skin. 
If it is not convenient to obtain this, chimney soot, flour, or starch may 
be spread on the wound (dry), and covered with cotton batting and 



348 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

light bandage if possible. The blisters should be opened to let the con- 
tained fluid escape, but do not pull off the thin cuticle which has been 
raised by the blister. When the burn is extensive and deep sloughing 
occurs, the parts should be treated like other deep wounds, by poultic- 
ing, astringent washes, etc. When the system has sustained much 
shock, stimulants may be required internally, such as 4 ounces of whisky 
or 2 drams of carbonate of ammonia, every hour until the animal rallies. 
When the pain is very great, hypodermic injections of 6 grains of mor- 
phia may be administered every six hours. 

Frostbite on any portion of the body may be treated as recommended 
in the article on diseases of the ears. 

EMPHYSEMA — WIND UNDER THE SIIN. 

Emphysema of the skin is not a true disease of the skin, but we will 
mention it as a pathological condition. It is characterized by a disten- 
sion of the skin with air contained in the subcutaneous areolar tissue. 
It may depend upon a septic condition of the blood, as in anthrax or 
blackleg; or air may be forced under the skin about the head, neck, 
and shoulders, as a result of rupture of the windpipe. It occurs in the 
region of the chest and shoulders from penetrating wounds of the chest 
and lung, and occasionally follows puncture of the rumen, when the 
escaping gas becomes retained under the skin. 

Symptoms. — The skin is enormously distended over a greater or less 
portion of the body; thus any region of the body may lose its natural 
contour and appear like a monstrosity. There is a peculiar crackling 
beneath the skin when the hand is passed over it, and on tapping it 
with the fingers a resonant drum-like sound is elicited. 

Treatment. — Puncture the distended skin with a broad-bladed pocket 
knife and press out the contained air. Further treatment must be 
directed with a view to the removal of the cause. 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 



By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S., Sterling, 111. 



LAMINITIS— FOUNDER. 

Laminitis denotes an active inflammation of the sensitive structures 
within the wall of the hoof, which may in severe cases result in sup- 
puration, and the loss of one or more claws. Owing to the simplicity 
of the structure of the foot of the ox, compared with that of the horse, 
this disease is rarely seen in an acute form, but a mild form, commonly 
called soreness, is not of infrequent occurrence. 

Causes. — Laminitis in cattle may be caused by overfeeding, overheat- 
ing, or by driving long distances over rough or stony soil. 

Symptoms. — An unwillingness to maintain the standing position; the 
animal persists in lying down. The feet will be found unnaturally hot, 
and frequently some swelling may be noticed above the hoof; the gen- 
eral body temperature is increased, and the breathing accelerated. 
Ordinarily the animal eats and drinks. When it is made to move ex- 
cessive tenderness of the feet becomes manifest; it affects the hind as 
well as the fore feet, usually all four. 

Treatment. — Cold packs to the feet, or if the animal can be made to 
stand in a running stream of water, having a soft bottom, this will often 
relieve the inflammation without the necessity of any additional treat- 
ment. It may be well, however, to give a full dose of Epsom salts, 1 
to 1£ pounds, followed by half-ounce doses of saltpeter two or three 
times a day. 

SORENESS — FOOT SORENESS. 

Cattle that are driven over stony roads, especially such as have been 
stabled or pastured on soft ground, soon wear down the soles of their 
feet and become lame from foot-soreness. Draft oxen, for this reason, 
require to be shod. When the soreness is excessive it may develop into 
an active inflammation of all the sensitive structures of the foot — lami- 
nitis. 

Treatment. — Rest, poulticing the feet with moistened clay, followed 
by astringent washes — strong white- oak bark or alum water. 

349 



350 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

LOSS OF HOOF. 

Cattle sometimes become fastened between planks or otherwise, and 
pull off the wall of one or both claws in the effort to extricate themselves. 
The claws of one or more feet may be shed as the result of acute lami- 
nitis. 

Treatment. — Apply a thick coating of pine tar over the bleeding sur- 
face, then cover with a layer of oakum or absorbent cotton; apply 
another coat of tar over this, and then bandage closely and firmly. 
This may remain without disturbance until the new growing wall 
becomes sufficiently strong to sustain the pressure and weight of the 
animal. If, however, at any time it becomes manifest that pus is form- 
ing under this dressing, by oozing or bad smell, the bandage should 
be removed and as much of the suppurating surface freshly dressed as 
may indicate any unhealthy condition. Before applying tar to this 
second dressing the foot should be soaked in a solution of chloride of 
zinc, 1 dram to a pint of water. This may have to be repeated every 
few days, and should be continued so long as there is any pus formation. 
If the loss of hoof is due to suppurative laminitis, the parts denuded 
of the horny covering must be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected with 
the zinc solution. Then apply a moderately thick layer of absorbent 
cotton, and apply the tar and bandage over this. After this the zinc 
solution may be poured in at the top of the dressing daily. It will thus 
soak in and saturate the dressing and inflamed tissue. It may become 
necessary to remove the whole of the dressing once a week to give the 
parts a fresh cleansing, and then to reapply it. In all cases where it 
can be avoided, the first dressing should never be removed entirely, but 
holes may be made through it for the escape of pus. 

FOUL IN FOOT — FOOT-ROT. 

A variety of causes may produce inflammation of the foot between 
the claws or toes; sometimes the inflammation will extend entirely 
around the bulb of the heels. It may be due to an overgrowth of the 
claws and inward pressure, as in ingrowing nail of man, or it may be 
caused by the irritation of stable filth, to impaction and hardening of 
soil between the claws, or to other foreign substances becoming wedged 
in and causing inflammation and softening or ulceration of the skin in 
the interdigital space. Tuberculous cattle are subject to foul feet. 
This disease is most frequently seen in the hind feet, though all four 
feet may become affected. It is never contagious among cattle like the 
foot-rot among sheep. 

Symptoms. — The animal is observed to limp in walking. On examina- 
tion of the foot we discover fever, swelling above the hoof, and of the 
soft parts between the claws, which frequently spreads the foot apart 
to a considerable extent, or the inflammation may have advanced to 
softening and sloughing of the interdigital membrane. If the disease 
is neglected at this stage deep abscesses may form and the pus ourrow 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 351 

under the horny wall, or the joint within the hoof may become inflamed 
and the articular attachments destroyed, in which case the treatment 
will become difficult and recovery very tedious. 

Treatment. — In the earlier stages of the disease, before pus burrows 
beneath the horn, a thorough cleansing and an application of a car- 
bolic acid solution — 1 ounce to a pint of water — clean stabling, and 
laxative food will soon remedy the evil. If deep sloughing has taken 
place the carbolic solution should be used, and a wad of oakum or cot- 
ton smeared with pine tar should be secured firmly in the cleft. This 
can be done by taking a strip of strong cloth, two inches wide, passing 
the middle between the claws, then tying the ends after winding them 
in opposite directions above the hoof. Sometimes warm poulticing, 
with oil-cake meal, boiled carrots, or boiled mashed potatoes, becomes 
necessary to relieve excessive fever and pain. If the pus burrows under 
the horn its channel must be followed by paring away the horn until 
the bottom is reached. The after treatment will be the same as that 
already recommended. If the joint becomes diseased an amputation 
of that toe will be the quickest and surest method to relieve the suffer- 
ing of the animal, and offers the best chance for an early recovery. 

ULCERATION OF THE HEEL. 

Occasionally we find ulcers at the junction of the hair with the hoot 
at the heel, which present an elevated, raw, or ragged surface, and 
cause considerable lameness. This is generally due to a bruise of the 
fibrous cushion of the back part of the foot. Subsequent sloughing 
or necrosis may occur, or pus may form deep down within the wall and 
gain an exit at the margin of the heel. 

Treatment. — If there is a deep opening inject the carbolic solution 
once a day until it closes. If the ulcer is only superficial apply, twice 
a week, a mixture of equal parts of blue vitriol and alum in dry powder. 

FISSURE OF THE WALL — SPLIT HOOF. 

This is rarely seen among cattle. It may occur in weak walls, in 
heavy-bodied cattle, by stepping on an uneven surface, especially when 
the point of the toe is grown out long. I have seen the point of the toe 
broken and the wall split almost up to the hair. 

Treatment. — The divided sections may be brought into approximation 
and held in place by drilling a smallhole from one side into and through 
the other, commencing half an inch back of the fissure on each side, 
then drive a light horseshoe nail through the hole and clinch it. Pare 
the injured claw as short as it will bear. 

INTERDIGITAL FIBROMA. 

Hard, nodular, fibrous tumors sometimes grow in the cleft of the foot, 
and cause inconvenience, lameness, absorption, or ulceration of the con- 
tiguous parts. 



352 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Treatment. — They should be dissected out, and the wound dressed 
with carbolized cosnioline once a day until healing is completed. 

DEFORMITIES. 

Deformities in the feet of cattle usually consist in overgrowth of horn, 
generally due to want of wear in animals which are stabled. The hoof 
may turn inward, outward, or upward, and may give rise to lameness, 
inability to walk, foul foot, etc. Bulls which are continually stabled, 
dairy cows also, very frequently have misshapen feet for want of an 
occasional trimming, which may eventually lead to permanent injury. 

Treatment. — Cut the superabundant growth of horn down with saw, 
knife, or rasp, until the foot assumes its natural form. 

PRICKS AND WOUNDS. 

If an animal suffers with a penetrating wound from prick of fork or 
nail, the orifice of the wound should be enlarged to permit a free dis- 
charge of pus f then apply a flaxseed poultice, changing it three times 
a day until the fever has abated. Keep the animal on a clean floor 
until all lameness has disappeared. 

If an animal is cut in the foot with barbed wire, piece of glass, or any 
other substance, dress the wound, after proper cleansing, with carbolic 
acid solution, 1 ounce to 20 of water. If any uneven edges of horn or 
skin or lacerated flesh project, trim them off, and in all cases when it can 
be done a tarred bandage should be applied. This will serve to sustain 
the cut surfaces in their place, exclude dirt, and protect against flies, 
maggots, etc. 

When the wound has extended into a joint, surgical treatment may 
become necessary, which will require the services of an educated veter- 
inarian. 

Occasionally an animal becomes fastened by the foot in some crevice 
and sustains severe bruising, wrenching, or fracture of some part of the 
foot. In such cases cold water packs to the injured member will be of 
service until the fever and swelling disappear. Afterwards allow the 
animal rest until the usefulness of the foot is restored. This will be all 
that is required, unless complications arise. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. 



By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S., Sterling, 111. 



For the sake of gaining a clear comprehension of the diseases of the 
eye it becomes necessary to review the anatomy of this important organ. 
The essential organ of vision or globe of the eye will be first described, 
then the receptacle of this globe or orbital cavity, the muscles that 
move it, the protective membranes or eyelids, the membrana nictitans 
or accessory eyelids, and, lastly, the lachrymal apparatus. 

The globe or ball of the eye approaches the spherical in form. On 
closer inspection, however, it will appear to be made up of two combined 
portions from spheres of different sizes. The posterior portion, forming 
about five-sixths of the ball, is a sphere of comparatively large size with 
a small segment cut off it in front, and at this point there is applied to 
it the anterior portion, which, being a segment of a smaller sphere, pro- 
jects at the front of the ball with a greater convexity than the posterior 
portion. 

The eyeball consists of concentrically arranged coats, and of refract- 
ing media inclosed within these coats. The coats are three in number, 
viz, (1) an external protective tunic made up of the sclerotic and cornea', 
(2) a middle vascular and pignfentary tunic, the choroid; (3) an internal 
nervous layer, the retina. The sclerotic is the white opaque part of the 
outer tunic, of which it forms about the posterior five- sixths, being 
coextensive with the larger sphere already mentioned. The cornea 
forms the remaining one sixth of the outer tunic, being coextensive 
with the segment of the smaller sphere. It is distinguished from the 
sclerotic by being colorless and transparent. The choriod coat will be 
recognized as the black layer lying subjacent to the sclerotic. It does 
not line the cornea, but terminates behind the line of junction of that 
coat with the sclerotic by a thickened edge — the ciliary processes. At 
the line of junction of the sclerotic and cornea the iris passes across 
the interior of the eye. This, which may be viewed as a dependency 
of the choroid, is a muscular curtain perforated by an aperture termed 
the pupil. The retina will be recognized as a delicate glassy layer, 
lining the greater part of the choroid. 

The refracting media of the eye are three in number, viz, (1) the 

353 
24697 23 



354 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

aqueous humor, a watery fluid inclosed in a chamber behind the cornea; 
(2) the crystalline lens and its capsule, a transparent soft solid of a 
biconvex form, and placed behind the iris; (3) the vitreous humor, a 
transparent material with a consistence like thin jelly, and occupying 
as much of the interior of the eye as is subjacent to the choroid. 

The sclerotic is a strong, opaque, fibrous membrane, which, in a great 
measure, maintains the form of the eyeball, and protects the more deli- 
cate structures within it. Its anterior portion, which is covered by the 
ocular conjunctiva, is commonly known as the " white of the eye." In 
form it is bell-shaped, and the optic nerve pierces it behind like a han- 
dle, the perforation being a little to its inner side. In front the rim of 
the bell becomes continuous with the cornea. The outer surface of the 
membrane receives the insertion of the muscles of the eyeball. The 
coat is thickest over the posterior part of the eyeball, and is thinnest a 
little behind its junction with the cornea. 

The cornea is the anterior transparent portion of the outer coat of 
the eyeball. It may be viewed as a part of the sclerotic specially modi- 
fied to permit the passage of light into the interior of the eye. Its out- 
line is elliptical, approaching the circular, and its greatest diameter is 
transverse. At its periphery it joins the sclerotic by continuity of tis- 
sue, and as the edge of the cornea is slightly beveled and has the 
fibrous sclerotic carried for a little distance forward on its outward 
surface, the cornea is generally said to be fitted into the sclerotic like 
a watch-glass into its rim. The venous canal of Schlemm runs circu- 
larly around the eyeball at the line of junction of the sclerotic and 
cornea. The anterior surface of the cornea is exquisitely smooth, and 
is kept moist by the lachrymal secretion. Its posterior surface forms 
the anterior boundary of the chamber in which the aqueous humor is 
contained. The cornea is of uniform thickness, and is of a dense, 
almost horny, consistence. Save a few capillary loops of blood-vessels 
at its margin^ the cornea is without vessels. Its structure is comprised 
of five distinct layers. 

The aqueous humor occupies a chamber which is bounded in front by 
the posterior surface of the cornea, and behind by the capsule and sus- 
pensory ligament of the lens, and by the ends of the ciliary processes. 
It is across this chamber that the iris extends. The aqueous humor is 
composed of water, with a small proportion of common salt in solution. 

The iris is a muscular pigmented curtain extending across the inte- 
rior of the eye and having about its center an aperture termed the pupil. 
By variations in the size of this aperture the amount of light trans- 
mitted to the retina is regulated. It varies somewhat in color, but is 
most frequently of a yellowish-brown tint. Its anterior face is bathed 
by the aqueous humor. The greater part of the posterior surface is in 
contact with the capsule of the lens and glides on it during the move- 
ments of the curtain. The circumferential border is attached within 
the j unction of the sclerotic and cornea. The inner border circumscribes 



DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. 355 

the pupil, which varies in outline according to its size. When much 
contracted the pupil is a very elongated ellipse, the long axis of which 
is in the line joining the nasal and temporal angles of the eyelids. It 
contains muscular tissue, which by contracting or relaxing lessens or 
dilates the pupillary opening. 

The choroid coat is a bell-shaped, dark membrane which lines the 
sclerotic. Its outer surface has a shaggy appearance, due to the tunica 
fusca, which unites the two coats. Between the two the ciliary vessels 
and nerves pass forward. Behind it is pierced by the optic nerve; in 
front it is continued as the ciliary processes, which form, as it were, the 
rim of the bell. The ciliary processes form a fringe around the slightly 
inverted rim of the choroid. 

The retina is the most delicate of the coats of the eyeball. It is 
formed by the expansion of the optic nerve on the inner surface of the 
choroid, and like that coat, it is bell-shaped. Its inner surface is molded 
on the vitreous humor. The nervous structures of the retina terminate 
at a wavy line, the ora serrata, behind the ciliary processes. Ten dis- 
tinct layers are described as composing the thickness of the retina. 

The lens is situated behind the pupil, and is contained within a cap- 
sule of its own. 

The capsule is a close-fitting, firm, transparent membrane. The 
anterior surface forms the posterior boundary of the cavity in which 
the aqueous humor is contained, and the iris in its movement glides 
on it. The posterior surface is in contact Avith the vitreous humor. 

The vitreous humor occupies four-fifths of the interior of the eyeball. 
It is globular in form, with a depression in front for the lodgment of 
the lens. It is colorless, transparent, and of a consistency like thin 
jelly. It is enveloped by a delicate capsule — the hyaloid membrane, 
which is connected in front with the suspensory ligament of the lens, 
and ends by joining the capsule behind the lens. 

The ordital cavity, situated at the side of the head, is circumscribed 
by a bony margin ; posteriorly, however, there are no bony walls, and 
the cavity is confounded with the depression above and behind the 
orbit — the temporal fossa. A fibrous membrane completes this cavity 
and keeps it distinct from the temporal fossa. This membrane — the 
ocular sheath or periorbita— is attached posteriorly around the openirg 
in the back part of the orbital cavity (the orbital hiatus) and anteriorly 
to its inner face; then it becomes prolonged beyond the margin to 
form the fibrous membrane of the eyelids. The orbital cavity has the 
form when complete of a regular hollow cone, open at its base and 
closed at the apex. The opening of this cone is directed forward, 
downward and outward. Independently of the globe of the eye, this 
cavity lodges the muscles that move it, the membrana nictitans, and 
the lachrymal gland. 

The muscles of the eye are seven in number — one retractor, four 
straight, and two oblique. The retractor oculi envelops the optic nerve 



356 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

between the brain and the ball of the eye, and becomes attached upon 
the external face of the sclerotic tunic. When this muscle contracts, 
it draws the globe back into the orbit, away from the light. The 
superior, inferior, external, and internal recti or straight muscles are 
attached to the back part of the orbital sheath, and spread forward in 
four bundles over the globe of the eye, where they become inserted by 
a fibrous expansion into the sclerotic at the margin of the cornea. 
When they act singly they turn the globe either upward, downward, 
inward, or outward. The great oblique, by its action, pivots the eye 
inward and upward in the orbit. The small oblique turns the eye out- 
ward and downward. 

The eyelids are two moveable curtains, superior and inferior, which 
cover and protect the eye in front. They are attached to the circum- 
ference of the orbit, and have a convex external face formed by the 
skin, and a concave internal face molded on the anterior surface of the 
eye, and are lined by the conjunctiva, which is reflected above and 
below on the eyeball. The border of each lid is slightly beveled on the 
inner side, and shows the openings of the Meibomian glands. These 
glands secrete an unctuous fluid, which is thrown out on the border of 
the lids, the function of which is to facilitate their movements and 
enable them to retain the tears in the ocular cavity. The eyelid is 
composed of a fibrous inner membrane ending in a stiff arch near the 
border, a muscle to close the lid, another to open it, the skin externally, 
and the conjunctival mucous membrane internally. The border of each 
lid is covered and protected by long hairs, to prevent floating particles 
of matter in the atmosphere gaining entrance to the eye. 

The membrana nictitans, which is also named the third eyelid, wink- 
ing eyelid, haw, etc., is placed at the inner angle of the eye, whence it 
extends over the eyeball to relieve it from foreign bodies which may 
fall upon it. It has for its framework a fibro-cartilage, irregular in 
shape, thick, and nearly prismatic at its base, and thin anteriorly 
where it is covered by the conjunctiva; behind, it is loosely attached 
to a fatty cushion. 

The lachrymal gland is situated between the orbital process and the 
upper part of the eyeball. It secretes the tears destined to lubricate 
the anterior surface of the eye. This fluid escapes upon the organ at 
at the outer angle of the lids, and is carried between them and the eye- 
ball towards the inner angle. 

The caruncula lachrymalis is a small round body, frequently entirely 
or partially black, situated in the inner angle of the eye, and is designed 
to direct the tears towards the puncta lachrymalia. 

The puncta lachrymalia are two little openings, situated one in each 
eyelid, a short distance from the inner corner, which admit the tears 
into the lachrymal ducts leading to the lacrymal canal, from whence 
they are emptied into the nasal passages. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. 357 

CONJUNCTIVITIS — SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA. 

This is an inflammation of the conjunctival mucous membrane of the 
eyeball and lids ; in severe cases the deeper coats of the eye become 
involved, seriously complicating - the attack. 

Causes. — It may result from a bruise of the eyelid; from the intro- 
duction of foreign matters into the eye, such as chaff, hayseed, dust, 
gnats, etc.; from exposure to cold; poisonous or irritating vapors aris- 
ing from filthiness of stable. Dust, cinders, or sand blown into the 
eyes during transportation frequently induce conjunctivitis. 

Symptoms. — A profuse flow of tears, closure of the eyelids from intol- 
erance to light, retraction of the eyeball and corresponding protrusion 
of the haw, disinclination to move, diminution of milk secretion, etc. 
On parting the lids the lining membrane is found injected with an excess 
of blood, giving to it a red and swollen appearance; the sclerotic or 
white of the eye is bloodshot and the cornea may be cloudy. If the 
disease advances keratitis results, with its train of unfavorable symp- 
toms. 

Treatment. — Careful examination should be made to discover par- 
ticles of chaff, etc., which may have lodged in the eye, and upon the 
discovery of such a cause prompt removal is indicated. This may be 
accomplished by flushing the eye with warm water by means of a 
syringe, or if the foreign substance is adherent to the eyeball or lid it 
may be scooped out with the handle of a teaspoon or some other blunt 
instrument. To relieve the congestion and local irritation, a wash com- 
posed of acetate of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of pure soft water, may 
be used, to which may be added twenty drops of laudanum. A few 
drops of this should be placed in the eye with a camel's-hair pencil or 
soft feather three or four times daily. The animal should be placed in 
a cool, darkened stable, and then a cloth folded into several thicknesses 
should be fastened to the horns in such a manner as to reach below the 
eyes. This should be kept wet with cold water during the day and 
removed at night. If there is much fever and constitutional disturbance 
it becomes advisable to administer 1 pound of Epsom salts dissolved 
in 1 quart of water. 

CATARRHAL CONJUNCTIVITIS — SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. 

This generally appears m an enzootic form, and affects quite a num- 
ber in the herd. It is usually tattributed to some irritant material 
carried in the atmosphere or emanating from the soil. It is most prev- 
alent on low grounds, and is seldom seen in the winter months. It 
affects old and young animals alike, but I have never witnessed a sec- 
ond attack in the same animal, although it appeared among freshly- 
introduced animals for several successive years. 

Symptoms. — Catarrhal conjunctivitis is characterized chiefly by a 
mucopurulent discharge of the eyes, an intense degree of inflamma- 



358 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tion of the mucous membrane, accompanied by swelling of tlie eyelids 
and an early opacity of tlie cornea. The flow of tears is mixed with 
pus, sometimes streaked with blood, which gathers in large "masses on 
the cheek. The eyes are kept continually closed. The implication of 
the cornea in the disease frequently blinds the animal for a time, and 
occasionally suppurative keratitis, ulcers of the cornea, or staxfliyloma 
supervene. The attack is marked from the onset by a high fever, loss 
of appetite, partial loss of milk, suspended rumination, and separation 
from the herd. 

Treatment. — The animal should be housed in a cool, dark stable, sup- 
plied with jdenty of fresh water to drink and soft succulent food. 
Administer 1 pound of Epsom salts — if a very large animal \\ pounds — 
dissolved in 2 or 3 pints of water. Give tincture of veratrum viride 
every two hours in 30-drop doses and half an ounce of saltpeter three 
times a day. For an eyewash take boracic acid, 1 dram, and pour 4 
ounces of boiling water over it. Use this wash as often as convenient, 
applying it directly to the eye. In the majority of cases improvement 
becomes manifest in a few days, and the eye wil; become clear and free 
from inflammation in ten days or two weeks. Where the disease devel- 
ops ulceration of the cornea, or well-marked deep-seated keratitis, the 
treatment recommended for those conditions should be adopted. 

Prevention. — Whenever this affection appears in a herd all the unaf- 
fected animals should be moved to another locality; that is, to fields 
which possess a different character of soil and feed. The water should 
also be changed, especially if they have been obtaining their drinking 
water from a running stream or stagnant pond. 

KERATITIS — CORNEITIS. 

This is an inflammation of the cornea proper, although the sclerotica 
at the corneal border becomes involved to some extent. It may be 
divided into diffuse and suppurative. 

Causes. — The cornea constitutes the most prominent j)ortion of the 
eyeball, hence it is subject to a variety of injuries — scratches, pricks, 
contusions, lacerations, etc. Inflammation of the cornea may also be 
due to the extension of catarrhal conjunctivitis or intraocular disease, 
and it may occasionally occur without any perceptible cause. 

Symptoms. — Diffuse keratitis is characterized by an exudation into 
and an opacity of the cornea. The swelling of the anterior part of the 
eyeball may be of an irregular form, in points resembling small blad- 
ders, or it may commence at the periphery of the cornea by an abrupt 
thickening, which gradually diminishes as it approaches the center. 
If the whole cornea is affected it has a uniform gray or grayish white 
appearance. The flow of tears is not so marked as in conjunctivitis, 
nor is the suffering so acute. Both eyes usually become affected, unless 
it is due to an external injury. 

In favorable cases the exudate within the cornea begins to disappear 



DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. 359 

within a week or ten days, the eye becomes clearer, regains its trans- 
parency, until it eventually is fully restored. In unfavorable cases 
blood vessels form and are seen to traverse the affected part from periph- 
ery to center, vision becomes entirely lost, and permanent opacity 
(albugo or leucoma) remains. When it arises from constitutional causes 
recurrence is frequent, leaving the corneal membrane more cloudy after 
each attack, until the sight is permanently lost. 

Suppurative keratitis may be a sequel of diffuse keratitis; more com- 
monly, however, it abruptly becomes manifest by a raised swelling on 
or near the center of the cornea that very soon assumes a yellow tur- 
bid color, while the periphery of the swelling fades into an opaque ring. 
Suppurative keratitis is seldom noticed for the first day or two — not 
until distinct pus formation has occurred. When it is the result of dif- 
fuse keratitis, ulceration and the escape of the contained pus is inevita- 
ble; otherwise the pus may be absorbed. When the deeper membranes 
covering the anterior chamber of the eye become involved the contents 
of this chamber may be evacuated and the sight permanently lost. 

Treatment. — Place the animal in a darkened stable, give green or 
sloppy food, and administer 4 ounces of Glauber's salt — sulphate of 
soda — dissolved in a quart of water once a day. If the animal is de- 
bilitated a tablespoonful of tonic powder should be mixed with the feed 
three times a day. This may be composed of equal parts by weight of 
powdered copperas (sulphate of iron), gentian, and ginger. As an 
application for the eye nitrate of silver, 3 grains to the ounce of 
soft water, with the addition of 1 grain sulphate of morphia, may be 
used several times a day. If ulceration occurs a solution of blue vit- 
riol (sulphate of copper) or nitrate of silver, 5 grains to the ounce of 
water, should be used. (See Ulcer of Cornea.) 

To remove opacity, after the inflammation has subsided, apply a few 
drops of the following solution twice a day: Iodide of potassium, 15 
grains; tincture sanguinaria, 20 drops; distilled water, 2 ounces; mix. 

ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. 

An ulcer is the common consequence of the bursting of a small ab- 
scess, which not unfrequently forms beneath the delicate layer of the 
conjunctiva, continued over the cornea; or, in the very substance of 
the cornea itself, after violent keratitis, or catarrhal conjunctivitis. At 
other times the ulcer is produced by bruises, scratches, and other direct 
injury of the cornea. 

Symptoms. — The ulcer is generally at first of a pale gray color, with 
its edges high and irregular, and discharges instead of pus an acrid 
watery substance, with a tendency to spread widely and deeply. If it 
spreads superficially upon the cornea, the transparency of this mem- 
brane is lost; if it proceeds deeply and penetrates the anterior cham- 
ber of the aqueous humor, this fluid escapes, the iris may prolapse, and 



360 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the lens and the vitreous humor become expelled, thus producing a 
destruction of the whole organ. 

Treatment. — It is of the greatest importance, as soon as an ulcer 
appears upon the cornea, to prevent its growing larger. The corroding 
process must be converted into a healthy one. For this purpose noth- 
ing is more reliable than the use of solid nitrate of silver. A stick of 
nitrate of silver should be scraped to a point; the animal's head should 
be firmly secured; an assistant should part the lids; if necessary the 
haw must be secured within the corner of the eye and then all parts of 
the ulcer should be lightly touched with the silver. After waiting a 
few minutes the eye should be thoroughly washed out with warm milk. 
This operation generally has to be repeated once more at the end of 
three or four days. If healthy action succeeds, the ulcer assumes a 
delicate fleshy tint, and the former redness around the ulcer disappears 
in proportion as the ulcer heals. 

In superficial abrasions of the cornea, where there is no distinct exca- 
vation, this caustic treatment is not needed. The eye should be bathed 
with sulphate of zinc, 30 grains to half a pint of soft water, several 
times a day, and protected against exposure to cold air and sunlight. 
Excessive ulceration sometimes assumes the form of fungous excres- 
cence upon the cornea, appearing to derive its nourishment from loops 
of blood-vessels of the conjunctiva. Under these circumstances the 
fungoid mass must be cut away, and the wound cauterized with the 
nitrate of silver, or else the eye will soon be destroyed. When ulcers 
of the cornea appear indolent, with a tendency to slough, in addition 
to the treatment already prescribed, tonic powders should be given 
twice a day mixed with the feed; powdered copperas, gentian, and gin- 
ger, equal parts by weight. Dose, one tablespoonful. 

STAPHYLOMA. 

This is a disease of the eyeball, in which the cornea loses its trans- 
parency, rises above the level of the eye, and even projects beyond the 
eyelids, in the form of an elongated, whitish, or pearl-colored tumor, 
which is sometimes smooth, at other times uneven. 

Causes. — Inflammation is the only known cause, although it may not 
occur immediately; it frequently follows catarrhal conjunctivitis and 
keratitis as a sequela. 

Treatment. — In a few cases restoration of sight may be effected by 
puncturing the projecting tumor, and treating it afterwards with nitrate 
of silver in the same manner as prescribed for ulceration of the cornea. 
I have known a few cases where spontaneous rupture occurred, and 
healing without any treatment at all. 

CATARACT. 

In cataract the crystalline lens becomes opaque and loses its trans- 
parency, the power of refraction is lost — the animal can not see. 

Causes. — Cataract generally arises from a diminution — atrophy — or 



DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. 361 

other change in the nutrition of the lens; it may occur as a result of 
inflammation of the deep structures of the eye. Cataract may be sim- 
ple, or complicated with amaurosis, adhesions, etc. 

Symptoms. — It is known by the whiteness or loss of transparency of 
the lens, although the pupil dilates and contracts. Sight may be 
totally lost; however, evidence is usually manifested that the animal 
distinguishes light when brought out of a darkened stable. For the 
most part the formation of cataract takes place slowly, the cases in 
which it originates very quickly being but few. 

Treatment. — There is only one method for the treatment of cataract— 
a surgical operation for the removal of the lens; but this is not advisa- 
ble, for the sight can not be perfectly restored, and objects would be 
seen imperfectly without the aid of glasses. 

AMAUROSIS. 

A paralysis of the nerve of sight or the expansion of the retina. 

Causes. — This is the result of concussion from a blow upon the fore- 
head, fracture of bone over the eye, causing downward pressure, rheu- 
matic inflammation of the optic nerve, or from extension of deep inflam- 
mation of the eye involving the retina. It sometimes occurs as the 
result of excessive loss of blood, or of great debility. 

Symptoms. — In this disease seldom any observation is made until the 
animal in its gait and by its action indicates blindness. Generally both 
eyes are affected. The eyeball remains clear, and the pupil perma- 
nently dilated. No response to light is manifested. 

Treatment — If due to debility, loss of blood, or associated with rheu- 
matism, general blood tonics may be given in the feed, viz, powdered 
sulphate of iron, 1 dram ; gentian, 2 drams ; mix vomica, one-half dram; 
to be given twice a day. In cases of rheumatism, one-half ounce of 
saltpeter may be added. 

FILARIA OCULI — WORM IN THE EYE. 

Filaria oculi (provisionally taken as the larva of F. cervina). — This 
is a small white worm, and is found in the eye, swimming in the aqueous 
fluid in the anterior chamber. It may be apparently harmless for 
a long time, but will eventually induce keratitis with inflammatory 
exudations. 

Treatment. — The cornea may be punctured at its upper and outer 
margin, and the worm squeezed out with the aqueous humor. The 
latter will be formed again. 

CORNEAL DERMATOMA — HAIRY TUMOR ON THE EYEBALL. 

In a few instances this has been seen as a congenital growth. The 
tumor arises from the cornea or the sclerotic, covered by its respective 
membrane, with a growth of hair upon its surface. These tumors may 
be quite prominent or flattened, and are dark in color ; the hair may 



362 DISEASES OP CATTLE. 

protrude out between the eyelids, giving the animal the appearance of 
having a double eyelid. 

Treatment. — A surgical operation becomes necessary for their removal, 
one requiring a skilled operator. 

STRABISMUS — SQUINTING. 

This is a very rare affection among cattle. Strabismus may be either 
single or double — affecting one eye or both. It is due to a paralysis, or 
a weakening of one of the straight muscles of the eyeball. Generally 
it is a congenital defect, and the squinting is towards the nose — strabis- 
mus convergens. It is best not to attempt to remedy the defect, as the 
risk in an operation is greater than the chances of success warrant. 

PTERYGIUM. 

This term is applied to a fleshy-colored membrane, triangular in form, 
which most frequently grows from the inner angle of the eye and extends 
over the cornea, thus interfering with vision. It may grow from the 
outer angle, or even from the superior or inferior hemisphere of the 
eyeball. The figure is invariably that of a triangle, with its base on 
the white of the eye, and its apex more or less advanced over the cor- 
nea toward its center. 

The distinguishing characteristics are the constancy of the triangular 
form, and the facility with which the whole of it may be taken hold of 
with a pair of forceps and raised into a fold on the cornea. Every 
other kind of excrescence attached to this membrane continues firmly 
adherent to it, and can not be folded and raised from the surface of the 
cornea in any manner whatever. 

Treatment. — Eaise the fold and dissect it away from all points of 
attachment. 

TRICHIASIS — INVERSION OF THE EYELASHES. 

In the simplest form the eyelashes bend inwardly, touching the eye- 
ball, causing irritation and simple conjunctivitis. It may be also asso- 
ciated with entropion. 

Treatment. — The offending eyelashes should be cut off or pulled out. 
In cases where the natural growth of the eyelashes is directed inward 
an operation similar to that for entropion becomes necessary. 

ENTROPION — INVERSION OF THE EYELID. 

In inversion of the eyelid the eyelashes soon irritate the anterior 
face of the cornea, and produce more or less inflammation and opacity. 
The inversion may be due to the growth of a tumor within or without 
the lid, to abscess, laceration-, or injury, causing the lid to lose its nat- 
ural conformity to the eyeball, ulcerations, etc. Surgical interference, 
in either case, becomes necessary to restore the lid to its natural direc- 
tion. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. 363 

ECTROPION — EVERSION OF THE EYELID. 

This serves to injure the eye by permitting dust and other foreign 
substances to gain admission to the eye, and interferes with the natural 
removal of such substances. A delicate surgical operation — the removal 
of an elliptic section of the palpebral conjunctiva — may remedy the 
defect. 

TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. 

Occasionally tumors form upon or within the substance of the eyelid. 
These may be of a fibroid nature, and arise from the follicles of the 
hair as sebaceous tumors, or may be in the form of an abscess. In 
debilitating diseases the lids sometimes become swollen and puffy, a 
condition which might possibly be taken for the growth of a tumor. 
This generally disappears with the improvement of the health of the 
animal. Warts not uncommonly appear on or about the eyelids of 
cattle. 

Treatment. — The removal of a tumor in the vicinity of so delicate 
an organ as the eye should not be attempted by any one not qualified 
for the operation. 

LACERATION OF THE EYELID. 

This accident is not uncommon where cattle are fenced in by barbed 
wire 5 an animal may be caught under the eyelid by the horn of another ; 
it may occur in the stable by means of a projecting nail or splinter of 
wood. 

Treatment. — The edges of the wound should be brought together 
closely and correctly, by means of pins pushed through very nearly 
the whole thickness of the lid, extending through each lip of the torn 
part ; then a waxed silk or linen thread must be wound over each end 
of the pin crossing the torn line in the form of the figure 8 (Plate 
xxviii, Fig. 9) ; the pins should be placed about f of an inch apart. 
The projecting ends of the pins should be cut off close to the ligature, 
and the parts kept anointed with vaseline to which has been added 5 
per cent of creolin. In place of a pin suture, silver wire, catgut, or 
strong linen thread may be used in the way of an ordinary suture. 

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE. 

Splinters of wood, hedge thorns, pieces of cornstalk or leaves, stems 
of hay or straw, twigs of trees, or weeds may penetrate into the eye, 
break off and remain, causing inflammation, blindness, abscess, etc. 
These substances may penetrate the eyeball, but more frequently they 
glide off and enter between the eye and the ocular sheath. 

Treatment. — Their removal becomes often a very difficult task, from the 
fact that the organ is so extremely sensitive, and the retracting power 
so strong as to necessitate casting the animal, or even the administra- 



364 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tion of sufficient chloroform to render it completely insensible. The 
removal, however, is of paramount importance, and the after treatment 
depends upon the extent and location of the injury — cold water com- 
press over the injured eye, the application of mild astringent and 
cooling washes, such as acetate or sulphate of zinc, 5 grains to the 
ounce of water. When there is extreme suffering from pain a 5 per 
cent solution of atropia or morphia, 5 grains to the ounce of water, may 
be dropped into the eye, alternating with the cooling wash several 
times a day. When abscesses form within the orbit a free opening must 
be maintained for the discharge of pus. In deep penetrating wounds 
of the eye there is a great tendency to the formation of a fungus 
growth, which often necessitates the enucleation of the whole eyeball. 

ORBITAL AND PERIORBITAL ABSCESS. 

Orbital abscess may form outside of the globe and within the orbital 
sheath, as the result of a previous wound of the parts, or from fract- 
ure of the bony orbit, etc. Periorbital abscess commences outside of 
the ocular sheath, beneath the periosteal membrane covering the bone, 
and is usually the result of a diseased or fractured bone which enters 
into the formation of the orbital cavity. 

Symptoms. — Orbital abscess is manifested by a pushing forward of 
the eyeball (exophthalmos), a swelling of the conjunctiva and eyelids. 
The bulging out of the eye is in proportion to the size of the abscess ; 
the movement of the eye is fixed, due to the painfulness of any volun- 
tary movement of the eyeball. Periorbital abscess generally pushes 
the eye to one side; otherwise the symptoms are similar to the forego- 
ing. The pain generally is very great; paralysis of the nerve of sight 
may occur, and death may be caused by the abscess extending to the 
brain. 

Treatment. — The treatment for either orbital or periorbital abscess is 
the same as that for abscess occurring in any other part of the body — 
a free opening for the escape of imprisoned pus. This should be made 
as soon as the true nature of the disease is recognized. Afterwards 
antiseptic injections may be needed to stimulate healthy granulation 
and to prevent septic infection of the ocular membranes. For this pur- 
pose a saturated solution of boracic acid may be used, or listerine one 
part to ten of water. When the fever runs high, Glauber salts — sul- 
phate of soda — may be given in 4-ounce doses once a day. The animal 
should be kept in a darkened stable, on soft or green feed. 

FRACTURE OF THE ORBIT. 

This accident occasionally occurs among belligerent animals, or as 
the result of blows delivered by brutal attendants. The orbital process 
above the eye may be entirely crushed in, pressing down upon the eye- 
ball. In such an event the depressed bone should be elevated into its 
proper place, and if it fails to unite it may have to be removed with saw 



DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. 365 

or chisel. The margin of the orbit may be crushed at any point and 
cause periorbital abscess, or necrosis may result from the presence of a 
splinter of bone or the excessive destruction of bone. In all cases of 
fracture the animal should be taken out of the herd and kept by itself 
until the injured part has had time to heal. 

NECROSIS OF THE BONY ORBIT. 

As the result of fracture of the margin of the orbit a part of the 
injured bone may become necrosed (dead), and periostitis and periorbital 
abscess will follow as a consequence. The discovery of this disease will 
at first resemble abscess, but on making an examination with a probe after 
the abscess is open we will find the bone rough and brittle at the point 
of disease. The discharge will have a peculiar fetid odor, and is often 
mixed with blood. 

Treatment. — The affected bone must be laid bare and all diseased por- 
tions removed by scraping, or if necessary with saw or chisel, disre- 
garding the extent of the injury or the size of the wound necessary to 
be inflicted. A large portion of the bony orbit may be removed with- 
out serious danger to the eye, provided the eyeball itself has not been 
previously affected by the disease or involved in the original injury. 

TUMORS OF THE ORBIT. 

A fungus tumor of the eyeball or orbit occasionally appears, which 
is designated fungus luematodes. This may arise without any appre- 
ciable cause, or as the result of a wound. It frequently commences 
within the eyeball as a small red mass, eventually bursts through, and 
pushes its way outside of the orbit as a large dark red mass, bleeding 
at the slightest touch. It has a peculiar fetid odor, and early in its 
appearance destroys sight, involving all the contents of the orbit, not 
infrequently the bony wall itself. 

Unless the tumor is totally removed in its early stage of growth, 
together with the eyeball, the disease will eventually cause emaciation 
and death of the animal. The enucleation of the eyeball should not be 
undertaken by any one unacquainted with the anatomical structures 
involved in such an operation. When the operation is performed early 
enough the result is generally satisfactory. 

Bony tumors of the orbit are occasionally present in cattle, the result 
of bruises, fractures, etc. They may encroach upon the contents of 
the orbit, causing paralysis of the optic nerve — the condition known 
as amaurosis — or by pressure upon the posterior surface of the eyeball 
force it forward, or produce atrophy (shrinking). They may displace 
the eye in any direction, with or without disturbing vision. 

Fibrous tumors growing within the orbit will produce symptoms simi- 
lar to those of bony tumors. 

Treatment. — When the outlines of the tumor, whether fungoid, bony, 
or fibrous, can be detected, an operation for its removal should be under- 
taken as soon as the sight of the eye is in any manner disturbed. 



366 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

DISLOCATION OF THE EYEBALL. 

The eyeball may be torn out of its socket by the horns of another ani- 
mal in a fight, or it may be crowded out with the blunt end of a club, 
cane, or probe in the hands of a human brute. 

Treatment. — When the optic nerve is not lacerated and the retractor 
muscles at the back of the eye are intact, an attempt at reduction is 
advisable. This, however, must follow very soon after the injury — 
before swelling takes place. Divide the outer corner of the eyelid to 
enlarge the orifice, then by pressure with the fingers of both hands 
placed upon the sides of the eye the ball may be put back into its 
place. Apply a firm compress over the injured eye and keep it con- 
stantly wet with cold water, containing one dram of sugar of lead to 
each quart. 

If the attempt at reduction proves unsuccessful the artery at the 
back of the eye should be ligated, and then the whole mass cut off as 
deep within the orbit as possible. The orbital cavity should be packed 
daily with fresh absorbent cotton after washing it out with a 3 per cent 
solution of carbolic acid or 10 per cent dilution of creolin. 

INFLAMMATION AND ENLARGEMENT OF THE HAW. 

The haw or membrana nictitaus is subject to inflammation and swell- 
ing from the extension of conjunctivitis, or direct injury by foreign sub- 
stances. It presents a red, swollen appearance, accompanied by con- 
siderable pain and a profuse flow of tears. A slight scarification with 
a sharp knife and the application of a cooling lotion, such as recom- 
mended for conjunctivitis, will soon reduce the swelling and restore it 
to its normal function. 

There is, however, a tendency for an inflammation of this membrane 
to take on a chronic character, which may eventually result in a per- 
manent enlargement, resembling a tumor. When it attains sufficient 
size to protrude itself permanently over the eye, or project between the 
lids so as to obstruct the sight, its removal may become necessary. A 
threaded needle is passed through the body of the enlarged mass by 
which the membrane is drawn out as far as possible, then with a blunt 
pair of scissors it may be dissected away from its attachments. The eye 
is afterwards treated with simple cooling lotions. 



DISEASES OF THE EAR. 



By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S., Sterling, 111. 

Diseases of the ears of cattle are not very common, for the reason, 
probably, that they are not subjected to the brutality of drivers so much 
as horses, and that the horns to a great extent protect them against 
external violence. 

OTITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE INTERNAL EAR. 

Inflammation of the deep part of the ear is often difficult to recog- 
nize in cattle. It may be caused by disease of bone in that region, 
from blows inflicted by drivers or from injury by other cattle. Occa- 
sionally the ear becomes involved in actinomycosis, or the inflamma- 
tion may be the result of a tuberculous affection. 

Symptoms. — The animal will hold its head to one side, or shake it, 
while the ear itself is held immovable. The movement of the jaws in 
eating usually gives rise to a manifestation of pain ; the base of the ear 
may be feverish and swollen, and very sensitive to the touch. If the 
inflammation has advanced to a suppurative stage matter will flow from 
the ear, which generally emits a very offensive odor. 

Treatment. — At first hot fomentations to reduce pain and fever, fol- 
lowed by a sharp blister below the ear. Laudanum, one part to ten 
parts of sweet oil, may be injected into the ear to relieve pain and to 
soften the secretions. If there is a discharge from the ear it should be 
thoroughly washed out by injecting warm soapsuds until all the matter 
has been washed away, then inject the following mixture twice a day: 
Sulphate of morphia, 20 grains; water, 1 pint; glycerine, 4 ounces. 

ABSCESS. 

Abscesses sometimes form about the base of the ear, either inside or 
outside, caused by contusions. A serous cyst is found occasionally 
between the cartilage and the skin on the base of the ear, which may 
be due to a similar cause. 

Treatment. — Make a free incision with the knife into the most promi- 
nent part of the abscess or cyst, then wash out the sac with carbolized 
water, using a syringe for the purpose. If the abscess recurs, open it 
again, wash it out, and inject tincture of iodine, or fill it with iodoform. 

367 



368 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

FUNGOID GROWTHS. 

As a result of laceration, or wound of any kind, fungous growths may 
develop on the ear, characterized by a raw, bleeding, granulating sur- 
face, with a tendency to become pendulous. 

Treatment. — The whole tumor or diseased structure should be cut 
away, and the wound treated daily with a dressing of carbohzed cos- 
moline, or turpentine and sweet oil, one part of the former to four of 
the latter. 

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EAR. 

Bugs have been known to gain entrance into the ear of an animal. 
I once removed an acorn from the ear of a cow that had been roaming 
in the woods. Accidentally, pieces of wood from a stanchion may 
become lodged in the ear. 

Symptoms. — A continuous uneasiness or frequent shaking of the head, 
occasionally the manifestations of exceeding great pain. The animal 
may rub the head and ear against trees or other objects in an endeavor 
to dislodge the offending body. 

Treatment. — A careful examination will reveal the offending cause, 
which may be removed with a pair of forceps, or scraped out with a 
hair-pin or piece of wire bent at one end. If much inflammation exists 
the ear may be swollen so that the foreign substance will be hidden 
from sight, then a probe may be inserted to feel for the object, which, 
when located, should be removed, even if it becomes necessary to split 
the ear at the base to do so. Afterward treat the ear with frequent 
warm water fomentations and the injection of soapy water, or oil and 
water. 

SCURFY EARS. 

Cattle are subject to scurfy ears, which may be due to a general 
morbid condition of the skin, or may be confined to the ears alone. 
The affected animal shows an inclination to rub the ear; thick scales 
of scurf collect on it, which sometimes have the appearance of hard, 
dry, horny scales. I believe this condition is chiefly due to a faulty 
secretion of the sebaceous glands of the ear, and would recommend a 
thorough cleansing with a stiff brush, then anoint the ear as far as 
affected with vaseline four parts to one part of white precipitate oint- 
ment. If the scurfy ears are only a part of a general scurflness of the 
skin, the condition of the animal needs attention. (See " Pityriasis.") 

FROSTBITE — GELATIO. 

It is not uncommon among young cattle which are poorly nourished 
and exposed outdoors to storms and extreme cold to suffer frostbite of 
the ear, which may constitute actual freezing of the part. 

Symptoms. — Gelatio presents naturally every degree of severity from 
the mere chilling of the tip of the ear to positive freezing and death of 
a portion. In a day or two after the freezing has occurred the ear will 



DISEASES OF THE EAR. 369 

become swollen arid very painful; tlie dead part will remain cold and 
begin to shrivel; a line of separation then forms between the inflamed 
and the dead or dying portion, and finally the piece destroyed drops 
off, leaving a raw healing surface. When the ear is only slightly 
affected by the cold an excoriation or peeling off of superficial skin 
takes place, accompanied by some pain and itching. 

Treatment. — A good liniment for frozen ears will be found in a mix- 
ture of turpentine, ammonia, and chloroform, of each one part, added 
to six parts of sweet oil. Rub this on the ear several times a day. It 
will relieve pain and stimulate the circulation, thus favoring a recovery 
of the injured structures. 

LACERATIONS OF THE EAR. 

Aggressive dogs are the most frequent cause of lacerated ear, gen- 
erally leaving a torn, ragged edge and bruised cartilage. 

Treatment. — If the wound is extensive a trimming of the ragged 
edges becomes necessary ; then fasten the edges together with silver 
wire, catgut, or strong thick linen thread, taking a deep hold. Apply 
pine tar. 

DISEASE OF THE CARTILAGE AND NECROSIS. 

Occasionally the cartilages of the ear become affected, usually the 
result of a deep bruise; pus forms, which burrows under the skin, and 
may find a discharge at any part of the ear more or less distant from 
the seat of the disease. When the cartilage has been extensively 
injured, pieces of it may become dead — necrosed — and dissolve, to be 
carried away with the pus, or it may lead to extensive sloughing and 
the formation of numerous running sores. In the disease of the car- 
tilage there is seldom much swelling or great pain. The discharge is 
usually very offensive, and occasionally streaked with blood. When- 
ever there is a long- continued persistent discharge from one or more 
openings in the ear, disease of the cartilage may be suspected. 

Treatment. — The sinus formed by the passage of matter should be 
probed and searched to the bottom for the presence of a foreign sub- 
stance or the evidence of decaying cartilage. When the probe touches 
necrosed cartilage it will feel like the presence of a piece of dry leather 
or partially softened wood. A counter- opening must then be made at 
this place, and all diseased cartilage cut away with the knife. The 
subsequent treatment consists in keeping the artificial wound open for 
the discharge of pus, and the injection of chloride of zinc, 5 grains to> 
the ounce of water, once or twice a day, until the wound is healed.. 

ENCHONDROMA OF THE EAR. 

This is an excessive growth of cartilage, found at the base of the ear 
in the form of a hard, painless tumor, firmly attached to the movable 
ear. The only recourse for its removal is the knife in the hands of one 
acquainted with the anatomy of the part involved in the operation* 
24697 24 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



By Drs. D. E. SALMON and THEOBALD SMITH. 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 

The importance to the farmer and stock raiser of a general knowl- 
edge of the nature of infections diseases need not be insisted on, as it 
must be evident to all who have charge of farm animals. The growing 
facilities for intercourse between one section of a country and another 
and between different countries cause a wide distribution of the infec- 
tious diseases once restricted to a definite locality. Not only the ani- 
mals themselves, but the cars, vessels, or other conveyances in which 
they are carried may become agents for the dissemination of disease. 
The growing tendency of specialization in agriculture which leads to 
the maintenance of large herds of cattle, sheep, and swine makes infec- 
tious diseases both more common and more dangerous. Fresh animals 
are being continually introduced which may be the carriers of disease 
from other herds, and when this is once introduced into a large herd the 
losses become very high, because it is difficult, if not impossible, to 
check a disease after it has once obtained a foothold. 

These considerations make it plain that only by the most careful super- 
vision by intelligent men who understand the nature of infectious dis- 
eases and their causes in a general way can these be kept away. We 
must likewise consider how incomplete our knowledge concerning many 
diseases is, and probably will be for some time to come. The sugges- 
tions and recommendations offered by investigators may, therefore, not 
always be correct, and may require frequent modification as our informa- 
tion grows more comprehensive and exact. 

An infectious disease may be defined as any malady caused by the 
introduction into the body of minute organisms of a vegetable or animal 
nature which have the x>ower of indefinite multiplication and of setting 
free certain peculiar poisons which are chiefly responsible for the mor- 
bid changes. 

This definition might include diseases due to certain animal para- 
sites, such as trichinee, for example, which multiply in the digestive 
tract, but whose progeny is limited to a single generation. By common 
consent the term infectious is restricted to those diseases caused by 

371 



372 diseases or CATTLE. 

the invasion and multiplication of certain very minute unicellular 
organisms included under the general classes of bacteria and protozoa. 
Nearly all the diseases of cattle, for which a definite cause has been 
traced, are due to bacteria. Among these are tuberculosis, anthrax, 
black quarter, and tetanus (or lockjaw). Only one, Texas fever, is 
traceable to i>rotozoa, and one, actinomycosis, to a fungus. Those dis- 
eases, of which the cause is unknown or imperfectly worked out, are 
pleuro-pneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies, cowpox, 
malignant catarrh, and dysentery. 

Bacteria may be defined as very minute, unicellular organisms of a 
plant-like character. Their form is very simple, as may be seen from 
an inspection of the various species depicted on Plate xxix. The 
description of these figures will be found at the end of this article. 
The magnification there given will furnish the reader some idea of 
their very minute size. They multiply in two ways. The bacterium 
elongates and then divides in the middle to form two daughter cells. 
These go through the same process at once and thus four cells are pro- 
duced. The division of these leads to 8, the division of 8 to 16, and so 
on indefinitely. The rapidity with which this multiplication takes 
place depends upon the nature of the bacterium. The bacillus of 
tuberculosis multiplies very slowly, while that of anthrax multiplies 
with great rapidity, provided both are in the most favorable condition. 
Another mode of reproduction, limited to certain classes of bacteria, 
consists in the formation of a spore within the body of the bacterium. 
Spore formation usually takes place when the conditions pertaining to 
the growth of the bacteria become unfavorable. The spores are much 
more resistant to destructive agents than the bacteria which produced 
them. The anthrax spore may live several years in a dried state, but 
the anthrax bacillus perishes in a few days under like conditions. 
This matter will be referred to again when we come to discuss the sub- 
ject of disinfection. 

Of the protozoa which cause disease very little is at present known. 
The one which produces Texas fever is pictured on Plate xliii, in Pigs. 
4 and 5. These parasites have a more complex life history than bac- 
teria, and as they can not be grown in artificial media their thorough 
investigation is at present hampered with great difficulties. 

The differences in the symptoms and lesions of the various infectious 
diseases are due to differences in the respective organisms causing 
them. Similarly the great differences observed in the sources from 
which animals become infected and the manner in which infection takes 
place are due to differences in the life history of these minute organ- 
isms. Much discussion has taken place of late years concerning the 
precise meaning of the words infection and contagion. But these 
words are now wholly inadequate to express the complex processes of 
infection, and it may be said that each species of bacterium or proto- 
zoon has its own peculiar way of invading the animal body, differing 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 373 

more or less from all the rest. There are, however, a few broad dis- 
tinctions which may be expressed with the help of these old terms. 
Infection, as laid down above, refers at present in a comprehensive 
way to all microorganisms capable of setting up disease in the body. 
Some microorganisms are transmitted directly from one animal to 
another, and the diseases produced may be called contagious. Among 
these are included pleuro-pneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth dis- 
ease, rabies, cowpox, and tuberculosis. Again, certain organisms are 
perhaps never transmitted from one animal to another, but may come 
from the soil. Among these are tetanus, black quarter, anthrax, to a 
large extent, and perhaps actinomycosis in part. These diseases accord- 
ing to some authorities maybe called miasmatic. There is a third class 
of infectious diseases of which the specific bacteria are transmitted 
from one animal to another, as with the contagious diseases, but the 
bacteria may, under certain favorable conditions, find enough food in 
the soil and the surroundings of animals to multiply to some extent 
after they have left the sick before they gain entrance into a healthy 
animal. 

This general classification is subject to change if we take into consid- 
eration other characteristics. Thus tuberculosis would not by many 
be considered contagious in the sense that foot-and-mouth disease is, 
because of the insidious beginning and slow course of the disease. Yet 
the bacillus must come from preexisting disease in either case. The 
disease of rabies or hydrophobia is not contagious in the sense that 
rinderpest is, because the virus of rabies must be inoculated into a 
wound before it can take effect. Yet, in both cases, the virus passes 
without modification from one animal to another, though in different 
ways. 

Again, all the diseases under the second group, which seem to come 
from the soil and from pastures, are in one sense contagious in that the 
virus may be taken from a sick animal and inoculated directly into a 
healthy animal with positive result. Other illustrations may be cited 
which show that these old terms are not in themselves satisfactory. 
There are so many conditions which enter into the process of infection 
that no single classification will give a sufficiently correct or compre- 
hensive idea of it. These statements will be easily understood if the 
different infectious diseases in the following pages be studied with ref- 
erence to the way or ways in which each disease may be contracted. 
Enough has been said, therefore, to show that if we wish to make our- 
selves acquainted with the dangers of any given disease we must study 
that disease and not rely upon any single word to tell the whole story. 

Infectious diseases have, as a general rule, a period of incubation 
which comprises the time elapsing between the infection and the actual 
appearance of the disease. This period varies with the malady. The 
most common symptom of this class of diseases is fever. The severity 
of the fever is measured by the temperature of the animal and this is 



374 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

readily and accurately ascertainable by the clinical therm onieter. (See 
Plate in, Fig. 1.) The other symptoms are variable and depend upon 
the particular organ or organs most implicated. Loss of appetite, 
cessation of rumination and milk secretion, and general dullness are 
symptoms quite invariably present in most infectious diseases. 

Secondary diseases or complications may arise during the course of 
infectious diseases which are largely due to bacteria other than those 
producing the original malady. These complications are often so severe 
as to become fatal. In general it may be stated that they are due to 
filthy surroundings, and hence cleanliness may become an important 
aid to recovery. 

The treatment of infectious diseases is given under each malady so 
far as this is allowable or advisable. These diseases are not, as a rule, 
amenable to treatment. When the symptoms have once appeared the 
disease is apt to run its course in spite of treatment, and if it is one 
from which animals usually recover, all that can be done is to put them 
into the most favorable surroundings. Many infectious diseases lead 
sooner or later to death, and treatment is useless so far as the sick are 
concerned. But it may be worse than useless for those not yet in- 
fected. All animals suffering with infectious diseases are a menace to 
all others more or less directly. They represent for the time being 
manufactories of disease germs, and they are giving them off more or 
less abundantly during the period of disease. They may infect others 
directly or they may scatter the virus about, and the surroundings may 
become a future source of infection for'healthy animals. This leads us 
to the subject of prevention, as the most important of all which claim 
our attention. In this place only a few general remarks will suffice to 
bring the subject before the reader. 

The most important thing is to keep disease away from a herd or 
farm. To do this all sick or susincious animals should be avoided. A 
grave form of disease may be introduced by apparently mild or trivial 
cases brought in from without. It is generally conceded that continual 
change and movement of animals are the most potent means by which 
infectious diseases are disseminated. 

With some cattle diseases, such as anthrax, black quarter, and pleuro- 
pneumonia, preventive inoculation is resorted to in some conn tries. This 
may be desirable when certain diseases have become stationary in any 
locality so that eradication is impossible. It should not be practiced 
in territories where a given disease may still be extirpated by ordinary 
precautions. Preventive inoculation is applicable to only a few mal- 
adies, and therefore its aid in the control of diseases is a limited one. 

When an infectious disease has gained foothold in a herd the course 
to be pursued in getting rid of it will depend upon the nature of the 
malady. A good rule is to kill diseased animals, especially when the 
disease is likely to run a chronic course, as in tuberculosis. The next 
important step is to separate the well from the sick by placing the 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 375 

former on fresh ground. This is rarely possible, hence the destruction 
or removal of the sick, with thorough disinfection of the infected local- 
ity, is the next thing to he done. As to the disinfectants to be used, 
special directions are given under the various diseases, to which the 
reader is referred. Here we will simply call attention briefly to the 
general subject. 

Disinfection consists in theuseof certain substances in solution which 
destroy bacteria or their spores, or both. Those which are cheapest and 
most available for animal diseases are ordinary freshly slaked lime or 
unslaked in powder, chloride of lime, crude carbolic acid, and mercuric 
chloride or corrosive sublimate. 

(1) Slaked lime is perhaps the most easily procured, but its disin- 
fecting power is limited. While it is capable of destroying all bacteria 
in their vegetative state, it is unable to destroy spores such as those of 
anthrax and black quarter. It is probable, however, that in incrust- 
ing spores it may destroy their vitality sooner or later. It is regarded 
as safe practice to use only spore-destroying substances for the virus 
of those diseases of which we have no definite knowledge. Neverthe- 
less in the absence of other disinfectants lime is very useful. It may 
be employed as a whitewash on wood and stone and sprinkled as a 
dilute wash or in powder over yards, manure heaps, and over carcasses 
before they are buried and over the ground on which they have lain, 
to prevent other animals from carrying the infection away. 

(2) Chloride of lime is more efficient than simple slaked or unslaked 
lime, since it destroys spores. It is the ordinary bleaching powder of 
commerce, and is quite unstable, hence old preparations, unless sealed, 
are of little value. A 5 per cent solution is sufficiently strong for all 
spore-bearing bacteria (3 ounces in 2 quarts of water). 

(o) Crude carbolic acid. The ordinary purified carbolic acid is too 
expensive to be used on a large scale, and the crude product is a very 
good substitute. This is made more powerful by mixing with it an 
equal volume of commercial sulphuric acid. While the sulphuric acid 
is being added to the crude carbolic acid much heat is evolved, and if 
the glass jar in which the two are mixed together is placed in cold 
water the resulting product is said to have a higher disinfecting rjower. 
The mixture is added to enough water to make a 5 per cent solution 
(about 3 ounces to 2 quarts of water). This is strong enough for all 
purposes. It may be kept in wood or glass but not in metal, owing to the 
corroding action of the acid. It should be applied freely on woodwork 
and on infected floors. It must be borne in mind that it may be inju- 
rious to the hands, and to the feet of animals which are compelled to 
walk in it. In most cases where its application becomes desirable — 
and this rule should apply to all disinfections — the disinfected stables, 
stalls, etc., should remain vacant as long as possible before cattle are 
again put in. 

(4) Mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate is a powerful disinfee- 



376 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

taut but it is likewise very poisonous, hence its uses are limited. A 
solution of one-tenth per cent is usually sufficient (1 ounce to 15 gallons 
water). It is corrosive, and hence metal pails and dishes are to be 
avoided. All solutions should be labeled "poison," and to avoid acci- 
dents none should be kept on hand. In general the three first men- 
tioned are safer, and Nos. 2 and 3 equally powerful in the solutions 
recommended. 

In addition to these artificial substances there are several natural 
sanitary agents of great importance as destroyers of virus. These are 
cleanliness, ventilation, drying, and sunshine. All virus excepting such 
as may live in the soil is killed sooner or later by drying and sunshine, 
and the importance of these factors in the daily lifeof animals neednotbe 
insisted on here. Finally, all sanitary measures which contribute to the 
healthfulness of animal surroundings are directly or indirectly inimical 
to disease germs, and all carelessness in the keeping of animals maybe 
regarded as an ally of these destructive organisms. 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 

(Description of Plate XXIX.) 

The bacteria on this plate are partly from tissues, partly from cultures, and stained! 
artificially with aniline colors (fuchsin or methylene blue). Figs. 6 and 7 are- 
copied from Friinkel and PfeifTer's atlas. All but Fig. 7 are magnified 1,000 times ^ 
Fig. 7, 500 times. 

Fig. 1. Bacteria from pneumonia in cattle. These are also the cause of Wild- 
sen che and Rinderseuche in Europe, and are closely related to swine-plague bacteria. 
These bacteria were drawn from a piece of spleen-pulp (rabbit). 

Fig. 2. Micrococci (staphylococcus) which produce inflammation and suppuration, 
also pysemia. 

Fig. 3. Micrococci (streptococcus) which produce iuflammation of the lining mem- 
branes of the abdomen, thorax, heart, brain, and joints. Frequently associated 
with the preceding bacteria in abscesses. 

Fig. 4. Bacilli of black quarter. The pale oval bodies as well as the light spots 
in one end of the bacilli represent spores. 

Fig. 5. Bacilli which produce tetanus or lockjaw. The light spot in the enlarged 
ends of the rods represent a spore. 

Fig. 6. Bacilli of tuberculosis. Microscopic sections of a pearly nodule from the 
lining membrane of the chest cavity. The bacilli are stained red and appear as 
small straight rods within the cells of the nodule or tubercle. 

Fig. 7. Bacilli of anthrax. Bacilli from the spleen of a mouse inoculated with a 
culture. The bacilli were obtained from the blood of a cow which died of anthrax 
in Mississippi. The bacilli appear as rods stained blue. The round bodies are blood 
corpuscles, also stained artificially. 

CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. 

Definition and history. — This disease has been eradicated from the 
United States, and it is not probable that it will ever be seen in this 
country again. As, however, much interest has been manifested in re- 
gard to it for a number of years, and as our cattle are still prohibited 
from some foreign markets on account of its recent existence here, the 
subject is treated at greater length than would otherwise be necessary. 



PLATE XXIX 



Fig.l 



Fig. 2 



Fig. 3 



o a 



*•*••- : 



Fig. 4 



^ 



i 



Fig. 5 



4 






Fig. 6 



Fig. 7 













Th? {'].-..l:i i :l '■■- "■■>:. . 



VARIOUS BACTERIA WHICH PRODUCE DISEASE IN CATTLE. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 377 

Thecontagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle is a specific epizootic disease 
which affects bovine animals, and from which other species are exempt. 
It is characterized, when the disease results from exposure in the usual 
manner, by an inflammation of the lungs and pleurae, which is generally 
extensive, and which has a tendency to invade portions of these organs 
not primarily affected, and to cause death of the diseased portion of the 
lung. This disease is frequently called the lung plague, which corre- 
sponds with its German name of Lungenseuche. In French it is spoken 
of as the periptieumonie contagieuse. 

The history of the contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle can not be 
traced with any certainty to a period earlier than the beginning of the 
eighteenth century. No doubt it existed and ravaged the herds of 
Europe for many years and perhaps centuries before that time, but 
veterinary knowledge was so limited that the descriptions of the symp- 
toms and post-mortem appearances are too vague and too limited to 
admit of the identification of the maladies to which they refer. It has 
been supposed by some writers that certain passages in the writings of 
Aristotle, Livy, and Yirgil show the existence of pleuro-pneumonia at 
the time that their works were composed, but their references are too 
indefinite to be seriously accepted as indicating this rather than some 
other disease. 

As early as 1713 and 1714 it seems quite plain that pleuro-pneumonia 
existed in Suabia and several cantons of Switzerland. Even clearer 
accounts are in existence of its prevalence in Switzerland in 1732, 
1743, and 1765. In 1769 a disease of cattle was investigated in 
Eranche-Comte by Bourgelat which was called murie, but which un- 
doubtedly was identical with the pleuro-pneumonia of to-day. From 
that period we have frequent and well authenticated accounts of its 
existence in various parts of Europe. During the period from 1790 to 
1812 it was spread throughout a large portion of the continent of 
Europe by the cattle driven for the subsistence of the armies, which 
marched and countermarched in all directions. It was generally prev- 
alent in Italy in 1800. It appears to have been unknown, however, in 
the department of the ISTord, France, until 1826, but during the years 
from 1820 to 1840 it penetrated into most parts of that country. Dur- 
ing the same period it was introduced into and allowed to spread over 
Belgium and Holland. 

This contagion is said to have been carried to Ireland from Holland 
in 1839, and is reported as existing in England in 1842. The disease 
was brought to the United States at several different times. Probably 
the first introduction of the contagion was with a diseased cow sold 
in Brooklyn, 1ST. Y., in 1843. It came to New Jersey by importing: 
affected animals in 1847. Massachusetts was infected in the same 
way in 1859. 

South Africa was infected by a bull brought from Holland in 1854. 



378 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

and Australia likewise received the contagion with an English cow in 
1858. It is also reported as existing in various parts of the continent 
of Asia, but the time of its first appearance and the extent of its dis- 
tribution are very uncertain. 

Some countries, which had only been infected for a short time, such 
as Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, have succeeded in eradicating the 
disease without much difficulty by slaughtering all affected and exposed 
animals. Other countries long infected, and in which the contagion 
was thoroughly established, like Australia, South Africa, Italy, France, 
Belgium, and parts of Germany, have labored long, in some cases mak- 
ing no progress, and in others being only partially successful. Holland 
was one of the first of the thoroughly infected countries to free itself 
from the contagion. 

In the United States, Massachusetts eradicated pleuro-pneumonia 
during the x3eriod from 1860 to 1866. New York and New Jersey made 
an attempt to eradicate it in 1879, but were not successful. Late in 
1883 the contagion was carried to Ohio, probably by Jersey cattle pur- 
chasedin the vicinity of Baltimore, Md., to which place it had extended 
previous to 1868. From the herd then infected it was spread by the 
sale of cattle during 1884 to a limited number of herds in Illinois, to 
one herd in Missouri, and to two herds in Kentucky. The alarm caused 
among the stock-owners of the United States by this widespread dis- 
semination of a disease so much dreaded led to the adoption of active 
measures for its control and eradication. By cooperation between the 
United States Department of Agriculture and the authorities of the 
affected States it was found possible to prevent the further spread of 
the contagion and to eradicate it after a few months' delay. 

In 1886 x>leuro-pneumonia was discovered in some of the large dis- 
tillery stables of Chicago, and among cows on neighboring lots. This 
led to renewed efforts to secure the complete extirpation of this disease 
from the country. Congress, in 1887, enlarged the appropriation avail- 
able for this purpose, and gave more extended authority. During the 
same year the disease was stamped out of Chicago, and has not since 
appeared in any district west of the Allegheny Mountains. 

The work of eradication was at the same time commenced in all of 
the infected States. Before the end of the year 1889 Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia had been 
freed from the disease. More difficulties, however, were encountered 
in the States of New York and New Jersey, on account of the larger 
territory infected and the density of the population. The long strug- 
gle was crowned with success, however, and the last animal in which 
the disease appeared in the State of New York was slaughtered early 
in 1891, and the last one affected in New Jersey met the same fate early 
in the spring of 1892. 

During these same years a supreme effort has been made to stamp 
out this lung plague from Great Britain. From the official reports it 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 379 

appears tliat the number of infected districts and of diseased animals 
have rapidly diminished, and there is good reason to believe that if the 
work is continued for a sufficient time it will meet with success. The 
chief obstacle appears to be in connection with Ireland, where the con- 
tagion is believed to be widely disseminated and where the activity of 
the authorities is not so manifest as in England and Scotland. If the 
contagion is allowed to linger in Ireland it is very plain that Great 
Britain can never long remain free from it. 

The other infected European countries, though they maintain a vet- 
erinary sanitary service, are not making satisfactory progress in eradi- 
cating the disease. This is due partly to delays in carrying out the 
provisions of the laws and partly to mistaken ideas as to the measures 
which are necessary to accomplish the object. The United States was 
the last of the countries, having old infected districts, which undertook 
to stamp out this contagion, and, excepting Holland, it is the first to 
reach success. 

The cause (etiology) of pleuro -pneumonia. — This is a contagious dis- 
ease, and on the American continent, at least, it only arises by contagion 
from a previously affected animal. It is, consequently, never seen here 
except as the result of importing affected animals from the Old World. 
When thoroughly stamped out it does not reappear, and if imported 
animals continue to be properly inspected and quarantined we have 
every reason to believe that pleuro-pneumonia will never again be seen 
affecting the cattle of this country. 

The exact nature of the virus or contagion of lung plague has never 
been determined. Efforts have been made by the methods now common 
in bacteriology to cultivate and isolate the pathogenic germs, but up 
to the present these have not been successful. Various investigators 
have from time to time claimed the discovery of the specific germs of 
the disease, but in every case these claims have proved to be unfounded. 
The methods now in use for such investigations do not appear proper 
for the discovery of these germs. They do not multiply in any of the 
substances which are used to cultivate other disease germs, and they 
are not revealed by the most advanced methods of microscopical 
research. That this disease is caused by microorganisms of some kind 
appears certain from our knowledge of the cause of other contagious 
diseases, and these no doubt will be discovered when our methods of 
research are sufficiently advanced. 

As the specific cause of the disease is not known, we are, of course, 
uncertain in regard to many of the characters of the virus and of the 
conditions necessary for it to retain its virulence when outside of the 
animal body. Some investigators and writers are of the opinion that 
the disease can only be contracted by an animal coming near enough to 
a living diseased animal to receive the contagion directly from it. They 
hold that the contagion is expired with the air from the affected lungs, 
and that it must be almost immediately inspired by another animal in 



380 DISEASES OF CATTLE* 

order to produce the disease. Some experimental attempts to infect 
animals by placing them in stables where diseased animals have been, 
and by placing the diseased lungs of slaughtered animals in their feed- 
ing troughs have failed, and, consequently, apparently confirm this 
view. 

On the other hand, it is known that the serum from affected lungs 
retains its virulence and maybe used successfully for inoculation weeks 
or months after the death of the animal from which it was taken. This 
is particularly the case when this liquid is hermetically sealed in glass 
tubes. Other investigators state that they have successfully infected 
cattle by placing in the nostrils sponges or pledgets of cotton saturated 
with such serum. Cattle have also, according to the best evidence 
attainable, been infected from the clothiug of attendants, from horns 
used in drenching, and from smelling about wagons which have been 
used to transport carcasses of animals affected with this disease. In 
the work of eradicating pleuropneumonia from the United States many 
stables have been found in which the disease would appear and reapj)ear 
after the slaughter of affected herds, and in spite of any precautions 
which could be adopted. These were always old stables, with wood- 
work in a decaying condition and with floors underlaid with filth which 
could not be thoroughly removed or disinfected. In everyone of these 
cases the destruction of the stable, the burning of the lumber of which 
it was constructed, the removal of the accumulations beneath the floors, 
and the thorough disinfection prevented the recurrence of the plague in 
new stables built upon the same premises. This experience conclusively 
shows that under certain conditions, at least, stables may retain the 
infection for a considerable time, and that when restocked the disease 
may break out again from such infection. 

As a rule, however, the disease is acquired by a healthy animal being 
near to an affected one and receiving the contagion direct. Affected 
animals may give off the contagion in the early stages of the disease 
before the symptoms are apparent to the observer, and they may retain 
this infectious character, if they survive the attack, for six months and 
probably for a year after all symptoms of the disease have disappeared. 

Incubation.— The time which elapses between exposure to the conta- 
gion of pleuropneumonia and the first appearance of the symptoms of 
this disease varies greatly with different individuals and with different 
outbreaks of the disease. Ordinarily the symptoms of disease make 
their appearance within from three to six weeks after exposure; but 
they maybe observed within two weeks or they may not become ap- 
parent until nearly or quite three months. It is this long period of 
incubation, and the great length of time that an animal may dissemi- 
nate the contagion after apparent recovery, which give the plague that 
insidious character so often spoken of, and which greatly increases the 
difficulties of eradication. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are such as would be expected with inflam- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 381 

mation of the lungs and pleurae, but they vary considerably according 
to the type which the disease manifests. If the attack is an acute one, 
as is frequently seen in hot weather, the symptoms appear suddenly, 
the breathing becomes rapid and difficult, the animal grunts or moans 
with each expiration, the shoulders stand out from the chest, the head 
is extended on the neck, the back is arched, the temperature is 104° to 
107°, the milk secretion is suspended, there is no appetite, rumination 
is stopped, the animal may bloat and later be affected with a severe 
diarrhea. fSuch cases are generally fatal in from seven to twenty days. 

Very often the attack comes on slowly and the symptoms are much 
less clear. In the mildest cases there is a cough for a week or two, but 
no appreciable loss of appetite or elevation of temperature. The lungs 
are but slightly affected and recovery soon follows. Such animals may 
disseminate the contagion for a long time without being suspected, and 
for that reason are the most dangerous of all. 

A more severe type of the plague is the most frequently seen. In 
these cases the cough is frequent, more or less painful, the back some- 
what arched, and the milk secretion diminished. The prominence of 
these symptoms increases, the appetite is affected, the animal loses flesh, 
the breathing becomes more rapid, the cough more painful, pressure of 
the fingers between the ribs shows tenderness, the hair loses its gloss 
and stands erect, the skin becomes adherent, little if any milk is secreted, 
and the temperature rises to 103° or 105°. Animals thus affected may 
continue to grow worse and die in from three to eight weeks, or they 
may after a time begin to improve and make an apparent recovery. 
The inflammation of the lung does not, as a rule, subside and the organ 
return to its normal condition as is the case in ordinary pneumonia, but 
with this disease the life of the affected portion of the lung is destroyed, 
the tissue dies and a fibrous wall is formed around it to shut it away 
from the living parts of the body. The tissue, thus encysted, gradu- 
ally softens, becomes disintegrated and breaks down into pus. The 
recovery, therefore, is not complete ; it is only apparent and partial. 

To those accustomed to examining the lungs of cattle, other and 
extremely important symptoms may be detected during the course of 
the disease. By applying the ear over the walls of the chest an area 
of a certain extent may be found where the natural breathing sound is 
diminished or entirely lost. This represents the diseased portion of the 
lungs. In other cases a loud blowing sound may be heard, quite dif- 
ferent from any sound produced when the lung is in a healthy con- 
dition. In some cases crepitation is heard near the border line of the 
diseased area, and friction sounds produced by the roughened pleura; 
but these can only be appreciated by those whose ears have been 
trained to distinguish between the different sounds which reach the 
ear when applied to the chest wall. By percussion, that is, by pressing 
the fingers of the left hand firmly against the wall of the chest and tap- 
ping upon the middle finger with the ends of the fingers, of the right 



382 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

hand, an area of dullness may be discovered corresponding to the por- 
tion where the respiratory murmur has disappeared. This loss of res- 
piration detected by ausculation, and the dullness brought out by 
percussion, are the most important evidences of an inflamed or consoli- 
dated lung. 

Seriously affected animals remain standing, if they have sufficient 
strength, but those which lie down always lie on the affected side. 

The proportion of animals which become affected after beiDg exposed 
varies according to the virulence of the outbreak, the susceptibility of 
the animals, and the length of time during which exposure is continued. 
Sometimes not over 15, 20, or 30 per cent will contract the disease when 
a large herd is exposed; but, on the other hand, 80 or 90 per cent may 
be affected. The proportion of cases in which the disease proves fatal 
also varies greatly — it may not exceed 10 per cent and it may reach 50 
per cent. In general it may be said that about 40 per cent of the 
exposed animals will contract the disease and about one-half of these 
cases will prove fatal. 

Post-mortem appearances. — Owing to the complexity of the structure 
of the lung tissue, its ramifications of bronchial tubes and blood-vessels 
and its abundant supply of lymphatics, the pathological changes in 
pleuropneumonia are but imperfectly understood and interpreted with 
great difficulty. Our ignorance as to the nature of the exciting cause 
adds to this difficulty. Furthermore there are certain kinds of pneu- 
monia which present some resemblances to pleuropneumonia and which 
may therefore be confused with it in some of its phases. 

If we kill an animal affected with acute pleuro-pneumonia and exam- 
ine the cavity of the chest and lungs the following appearances will be 
noted : 

The thorax may contain more or less serum, which may be clear or 
clouded. There may be firm adhesions of different parts of the lungs to 
the chest wall, the extent of which depends on the stage and severity 
of the disease. The diseased lobes are unusually large and exceedingly 
firm to the touch. The weight of a single large lobe may reach 40 
pounds. Usually only one side is affected, often but a single lobe, and 
this most commonly the large or principal lobe. The pleura may be 
covered with one or more layers of a firm, elastic grayish membrane, 
which varies in thickness and which sometimes may be pulled away 
entirely. Sometimes it is absent. The pleura, however, is opaque and 
apparently very much thickened. This is due to the diseased condition 
of the connective tissue beneath the pleura, as will be explained further 
on. When an affected lobe is cut through at right angles to its long 
diameter the cut surface will present a variety of interesting changes. 
In the first place, the spaces between the small subdivisions of the lung 
(the lobules), which in the healthy lung are barely visible, are distended 
with a yellowish white, usually quite firm, substance, .which is coagu- 
lated fibrin. The cut surface thus appears divided up into small fields 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 383 

by yellowish white bands of varying thickness running in various direc- 
tions through the lung tissue and beneath the pleura. (Plate xxxn.) 
These bands may appear honeycombed and the spaces filled with yel- 
lowish fluid (serum) or they may be uniformly solid. It will also be 
noticed that the space immediately outside of and around the artery, 
vein, and air-tube is similarly broadened by fibrinous deposits. Some 
authorities look upon these bands as constituting the so-called marbling 
of pleuropneumonia. 

In addition to these changes which have taken place in the connective 
tissue between the lobules, the lung tissue itself may be markedly 
altered. Certain areas of the cut surface may be very firm in texture 
and brownish red in color. The cut surface is granular or roughened, 
not smooth to the eye. Other areas equally firm may be more grayish 
yellow in color, still others may be blackish. (Plate xxxiii.) Besides 
these areas which represent solidified (hepatized) lung tissue there may 
be others which approach the normal lung tissue in color and which are 
soft and float in water. From these a milky purulent fluid may often 
be expressed. These different shades are represented in Plate xxxn, 
Fig. 2, within a small compass. Some authorities are inclined to con- 
sider these variations in color on the same cut surface as the so-called 
marbling of pleuropneumonia. It matters not whether we regard the 
bands between the lobules or the varying shades of the lobules them- 
selves as the marbling, provided either or both are peculiar to conta- 
gious pleuropneumonia. If we examine the blood-vessels appearing 
on such a cut surface they will usually be found plugged within the 
firmly hepatized regions. The artery contains a dark, soft, removable 
clot, the vein a grayish pink, granular, fragile plug (thrombus) which 
adheres firmly to the wall of the vein, and if this be slit open, indica- 
tions of a diseased condition of the inner coat will be readily detected. 
When large regions of the lung tissue are hepatized the main air-tube 
and its branches are usually filled with grayish, cylindrical branched 
masses of fibrin easily removed, as they do not adhere to the mucous 
membrane. 

The views of pathologists differ as to the nature of the earliest 
changes in pleuropneumonia, and it is not within the scope of this 
work to present imperfectly developed or controverted theories. In the 
foregoing description we have taken as a type the acute pleuro-pneu- 
monia in its fully developed phase, which can scarcely be mistaken for 
any other disease. We have seen that there is an inflammatory condi- 
tion of the connective tissue between the lobules, resulting in the exu- 
dation of coagulable lymph. This inflammation is equally marked 
around the blood-vessels and air-tubes. It leads to inflammatory 
changes in the inner wall of the veins, and these cause the deposition 
of thrombi or plugs in the vessels, which prevent the return of the 
blood. The blood pumped into the lung tissue through the artery, but 
unable to get out by way of the vein, leaves the meshwork of capil- 



384 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

laries around the air vesicles, enters the latter, and produces the firm 
hepatized condition so characteristic of this disease. It will be easily 
understood how the different shades of color from dark red to grayish 
or yellowish red are produced if we bear in mind that the veins in dif- 
ferent parts of the lung tissue are plugged at different times, and that, 
therefore, the affected regions are in different stages of disease. 

The complete plugging of the veins may lead to the death of cir- 
cumscribed masses of lung tissue. A line of separation forms between 
the living and the dead tissue and a thick cyst wall of fibrous tissue 
forms around the latter. The dead tissue for a time preserves the 
appearance of lung tissue, then undergoes disintegration and lique- 
faction. The softened mass is finally absorbed and the walls of the 
cyst or capsule around it gradually collapse and form a cicatrix. This 
favorable termination takes place only when the dead mass is not too 
large. This may, however, involve over a half of one of the large 
lobes. Under such circumstances recovery is improbable. A more 
favorable termination is the abundant growth of fibrous tissue around 
and into the hepatized masses. The formation of fibrous tissue may 
extend to the pleura or lung covering and cause firm adhesion of the 
lungs to the chest wall and to the pericardium or heart-case. 

The same peculiar inflammatory changes which take place between 
the lobules of the lung and around the bronchi and vessels may invade 
the pleural cavity, cause extensive membranous and spongy deposits 
on the pleura and firm deposits around the heart and large arteries, the 
gullet, and windpipe. 

These are the main features of the lung disease caused by contagious 
pleuropneumonia. In the typical acute cases there are a sufficient 
number of peculiarities to enable us to make a positive diagnosis. 
There are, however, many cases in which the disease is restricted to 
small areas, or to the interlobular tissue, or in which the changes are 
as yet imperfectly developed, or else so far advanced that doubts may 
arise as to the true nature of the affection. In such cases all obtain- 
able facts, including the history of the case, the symptoms during life, 
and the pathological changes observed on post-mortem examination 
must be taken into consideration. Only one who has made a careful 
study of the disease is fitted to decide in such cases. 

Other kinds of lung disease may be confounded with pleuro-pneu- 
monia because of certain features common to most lung diseases of 
cattle. The inflammation of the connective tissue between the lobules 
is not infrequently observed in so-called interstitial pneumonia and may 
lead to the formation of whitish bands intersecting the lung tissue in 
various directions. On the cut surface these bands may give rise to a 
decidedly " marbled" appearance. Again, in traumatic pneumonia, due 
as its name implies to the entrance of foreign bodies into the lung 
tissue, generally from the paunch, the connective tissue around the 
place of disease becomes inflamed and thickened and the disease itself 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 385 

may simulate pleuropneumonia in its retrogressive stages when it is 
confined to a small portion of lung tissue. The filling up of the inter- 
lobular spaces with fibrin and connective tissue of inflammatory origin 
is not thus limited to pleuropneumonia, but may appear in a marked 
degree in other lung diseases. It must not be inferred from this state- 
ment that these interlobular changes are necessarily the same as those 
in pleuropneumonia, although they may appear the same to the naked 
eye. We simply note their presence without discussing their nature. 

In general the distinction between pleuro-pneumonia and broncho- 
pneumonia is not difficult to make. In the latter disease the pneumo- 
nia generally invades certain lobes as indicated by the dotted line on 
Plate xxx. The disease attacks the smaller lobes in their lowest por- 
tions first and gradually extends upward, i. e., toward the root of the 
lung or the back of the animal and backward into the large principal 
lobes. Again both lungs, in advanced cases, are often symmetrically 
affected, as shown by the dotted line on both lungs in the plate referred 
to. In contagious pleuro-pneumonia the large principal lobe of one 
side is most frequently affected, and a symmetrical disease of both 
lungs is very rare, if, in fact, it has ever been observed. The lung 
tissue in broncho-pneumonia is not enlarged, but rather more contracted 
than the normal tissue around it. This is well illustrated in Plate xxxi. 
formal air-containing lobules may be scattered among and around the 
hepatized portion in an irregular manner. In pleuro-pneumonia the 
diseased and healthy portions are either sharply divided off, one from 
the other, or else they shade into each other by intermediate stages. 

The hepatized lung tissue in broncho-pneumonia when the cut sur- 
face is examined is usually of a more or less dark flesh color with paler 
grayish yellow dots regularly interspersed, giving it a peculiar mottled 
appearance. In the more advanced stages it becomes more firm, and 
may contain nodular and firmer masses disseminated through it. The 
air-tubes usually contain more or less soft creamy or cheesy pus or a 
turbid fluid quite different from the loose fibrinous casts of acute pleuro- 
pneumonia. The interlobular tissue may or may not be affected. It 
sometimes contains loose fibrinous plugs, or it may be greatly distended 
with air, especially in the still normal portions of the lung. The pleura 
is seldom seriously diseased. If we contrast with these features the 
firm, dark red hexiatizations, the plugging of the veins, the extensive 
interlobular deposits and the well-marked pleuritis in pleuro-pneumo- 
nia, there is little chance for confusion between well-developed cases of 
these two lung diseases. 

It should not be forgotten, however, that the lesions of the disease 
known as contagious pleuro pneumonia may be confined to the serous 
membranes of the thorax, or they may be confined to the parenchyma 
of the lungs; they may affect a whole lobe, or only a small portion of 
the lobe; they may or may not cause the so-called marbled appearance. 
In the same way broncho-pneumonia may vary as to the parts of the 
24697 25 



386 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

lung affected, the extent of the lesions, the degree and kind of patho- 
logical changes in the interlobular tissue, the color of the lung on cross 
section and the amount of hepatization. In individual cases, therefore, 
it is often necessary in the present condition of science to take into 
account the history of the animal, the course of the disease, and the 
communicability of the affection before a diagnosis can be made between 
the two diseases. 

Prevention and treatment — The prevention of pi euro-pneumonia, as of 
other contagious diseases, consists in keeping animals so that they will 
not be exposed to the contagion. As the disease only arises by conta- 
gion; there is no possibility of an animal becoming affected with it 
unless it has been exposed. If, therefore, plenro-pneumonia exists in 
a locality the owner of healthy cattle should make every effort to keep 
his animals from coming near those which are affected, or near any 
which have been exposed. He should be equally particular not to allow 
any person who has been on the infected premises to visit his own pas- 
tures, stables, or cattle. 

If pleuropneumonia breaks out in a herd every animal in that herd 
should be slaughtered, the stables should be thoroughly cleaned and 
disinfected, and no other cattle should be allowed on the premises until 
a period of ninety days has elapsed. 

Medical treatment of affected animals is unavailing and should not 
be attempted. No matter how valuable the diseased animals may have 
been before they contracted the disease, they should be at once destroyed 
and the contagion eradicated. This is the best policy for the individ- 
ual as well as for the community. 

The eradication of this disease by local or national governments can 
only be successful when the same principles are adopted and carried 
out as are here recommended for individual stables. It is then a diffi- 
cult undertaking, simply because the contagion is generally widely dis- 
seminated before any measures are adopted, and because a great major- 
ity of cattle-owners will never report the existence of t\ie disease. Reg- 
ulations must therefore be enforced which will insure the prompt dis- 
covery of every herd in which the disease appears, as well as the 
destruction of all diseased and exposed animals and the thorough disin- 
fection of the premises. 

To discover plenro-pneumonia sufficiently early for this purpose the 
district supposed to be infected should be clearly defined and a suffi- 
cient force of inspectors should be constantly employed to inspect every 
herd in that district at least once in two weeks, or better, once a week.- 
No bovine animal should be allowed to go out of the defined district 
alive, and all which enter it should be carefully inspected to insure 
their freedom from disease. As an assistance to the discovery of dis- 
eased herds, every animal which dies in the infected district from any 
cause, and every animal which is slaughtered, even if apparently in 
good health, should be the subject of a careful post-mortem examination. 
Many affected herds will be found in this way. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 387 

In addition to these measures it is also necessary to guard against 
the removal of animals from one stable to another, and the mixing of 
herds upon common pastures or in the public highways. The object 
must be to isolate every individual's cattle as completely as possible, or 
otherwise a single affected animal may infect a dozen or more herds. 
To prevent surreptitious sale or trading of cattle, each animal must 
in some way be numbered and recorded in the books kept by the official 
m charge of the district. In the work of the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture a numbered metal tag has been fastened to every animal's ear 
and index books have been so arranged that with a number given the 
owner could be at once ascertained, or from the owner's name the cattle 
for which he was responsible could be at once learned. In this way if 
an animal was missing from a stable the fact became apparent at once 
or if one animal too many was found in a stable the number in its ear 
would indicate where it came from. 

When pleuropneumonia is discovered by these means the entire 
herd should be slaughtered as soon as the formalities of appraisement 
can be arranged. In country districts the carcasses should be buried 
as it is generally impracticable to dispose of them in any other way' 
In city districts the animals may be taken to a slaughter-house with 
such precautions as are possible to prevent dissemination of the con- 
tagion. The animals should be slaughtered under the supervision of 
an inspector. The healthy carcasses may be utilized for food, but the 
blood, entrails, and all diseased carcasses should be heated to a tem- 
perature equal to or above boiling water, and then used for the manu- 
facture of fertilizers. 

The disinfection of premises should be thorough and should be car- 
ried out by a trained corps of men employed for that purpose The 
floors of stables should be removed, the accumulations removed from 
beneath them, the contents of hay-lofts should be destroyed, and the 
woodwork and soil beneath the stables should be thoroughly drenched 
with a solution of bichloride of mercury, one part to two thousand of 
water. After the flooring is replaced the woodwork should be coated 
with lime wash, containing one-fourth pound of chloride of lime to the 
gallon of mixture. 

Usually in these cases the owners are dependent upon their herd of 
cows for their living, and, consequently, it is difficult or impossible to 
hold the stables vacant for any considerable period. In a majority of 
instances cattle may be at once admitted to stables so disinfected with- 
out the reappearance of the disease. Occasionally, however, it will 
reappear without apparent cause. For this reason the inspection and 
other measures must be maintained in the infected district for six 
montns or a year after the last case of disease has been disposed of. 

Many people have objected to the slaughter of diseased and exposed 
animals as an unscientific and expensive method of eradicating this 



388 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

disease. To these it may be answered that it is the only method which 
has ever proved successful, and that in the end it is much more eco- 
nomical than temporizing measures. 

Inoculation has been adopted in many countries, and has undoubt- 
edly lessened the death rate, but the disease is kept up and spreads 
where this practice is allowed. For this reason it should be prohibited 
wherever there is a possibility and disposition to eradicate the con- 
tagion. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

[Description of plates.] 

Plate XXX. The dorsal or upper surface of the lungs of the ox reduced to one 
sixth of the natural size : a, a', the right and the left principal lohe. These are the 
largest and are situated posteriorly, resting upon the diaphragm; I, &\the ventral 
lobes, situated between the principal lobes, and c, c', c" , the most anterior or 
cephalic lobes ; c, c', c", anterior or cephalic lobes. The right anterior is divided into 
two lobes (c, &), the left is single (c") ; d, trachea or windpipe. 

Those portions of the lung tissue lying outside of the dotted lines are the ones 
most commonly affected in the ordinary types of pneumonia, In the majority of 
the lungs examined in the laboratory of the Bureau, which were affected with con- 
tagious pleuro-pneumonia, the principal lobes (a, a') were primarily affected. 

Plate XXXI. The ventral or middle lobe of the right lung affected with collapse 
and beginning broncho-pneumonia. The light yellowish portions represent healthy 
lung tissue, the red represents the disease. It will be noticed that the lines between 
thelobules are quite faint, indicating little or no inflammation of the connective 
tissue between the lobules. The healthy lung tissue is seen to be raised above the 
level of the diseased portion. In contagious pleuro-pneumonia the exact reverse is 
the case, the diseased portions being very much larger than the healthy. 

Plate XXXII. Appearance of a cow's lung affected with contagious pleuro-pneu- 
monia when sections or slices are made of it and cut surfaces examined. Fig. 1. 
Transverse section through the right principal lobe in a case of acute pleuro-pneu- 
monia. The area drawn includes the air -tubes, veins, and arteries, and illustrates 
the great thickening of the interlobular connective tissue into broad whitish bands, 
and of the walls of the air-tubes, veins, and arteries: a, air-tube, cut obliquely; a', 
air-tube cut directly across ; b, arteries cut across ; c, large vein completely occluded 
by a thrombus, or plug formed during life. The great thickening of the walls of the 
artery and vein in this disease is especially brought out by stating that in the 
healthy lung they are so thin as to be easily overlooked. Fig. 2. Transverse section 
of the principal lobe in a case of acute pleuro-pneumonia, illustrating the differeut 
kinds of hepatization or consolidation of the lung. These are indicated by the 
different colors from dark red to reddish yellow. Tbis-variation of color is regarded 
by some as the real marbling characteristic of pleuro-pneumonia, while the whitish 
bands penetrating the lung tissue in all directions constitute the true marbling ac- 
cording to other observers. 

Plate XXXIII. Illustrates what are called infarctions in pleuro-pneumonia. The 
right half of the figure shows nearly normal lung tissue. The left represents a 
blackish mass in which the lung tissue is filled with blood and solidified. This is 
caused by the plugging of the vein carrying away the blood from this portion. 
The heart forces the blood through the artery into the tissue at considerable pres- 
sure, but, owing to the fact that its return is prevented, the minute blood-vessels 
rupture and the air vesicles become distended with blood which coagulates and 
causes the firmness of the tissue. 



PLATE XXX 




TieOituitCo.Lilha.CtitcsjD. 

UPPER OR DORSAL SURFACE OF THE LUNGS OF THE OX. 

Ve nalural si3e. 



PLATE XXXI 




The II rculiCa.Ltlltn. Chiton. 



Haines, del. 



BRONCHO- PNEUMONIA. 



PLATE XXX11 




Fi£. 2 




Haines, del. 



G O^TAGI OUS PLEUR O -PNE UMONIA . 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 389 

RINDERPEST. 

Rinderpest, also known as cattle plague, is an acute infectious dis- 
ease of cattle in which the digestive organs are mainly involved. 
Though unknown in this country, the importance of having near at 
hand a few definite facts concerning this disease, should it ever reach 
our shores, will be at once appreciated. A knowledge of such facts 
may aid in an early recognition of the disease. It must not be for- 
gotten, on the other hand, that a superficial knowledge of diseases, 
such as the layman may gain through reading, not infrequently leads to 
confounding comparatively harmless, noninfectious maladies with such 
as are truly dangerous (foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, etc.), and 
causes temporary panics among stock-owners. 

Rinderpest has its home, according to some authorities, in the terri- 
tory around the Black Sea and the Volga River in Russia, according to 
others, in Central Asia. Thence it has been conveyed at various times 
by cattle to the countries of western Europe, where it has proved a 
veritable bovine scourge. It probably visited Europe as early as 
the beginning of the Christian era, and the migrations of people from 
the far East have since then introduced the disease from time to time. 
Especially during the eighteenth century it was more or less prevalent 
in Europe, owing to the frequent wars, during which herds of cattle were 
brought from eastern Europe and Asia to supply the demands of the 
armies. As late as 1870 it prevailed in Europe during the Franco- 
Prussian war. 

The virus is conveyed from one country to another chiefly by means 
of infected cattle. The railroad facilities of the present, which furnish 
the means of such rapid communications, are partictdarly liable to aid 
in the dissemination of the disease. 

In the past rinderpest has been supposed identical with various hu- 
man diseases, among them smallpox and typhoid fever. These sup- 
positions are unfounded, and the view of authorities to-day is that it 
is a disease of a peculiar kind, not identical with any other known 
infectious disease. 

The contagium of the rinderpest. — The cause of rinderpest must be 
looked for among microorganisms — most likely bacteria. The investi- 
gations made thus far hardly permit us to draw any positive conclu- 
sions. It was formerly supposed by various authorities that rinderpest 
virus appeared spontaneously under the influence of deteriorated food 
and long and exhausting drives, also during unusual meteorological 
conditions. This view, however, is no longer maintained. It is proba- 
ble that the disease in its home in Asia is perpetuated by continual in- 
fection of fresh animals, and some authorities even go so far as to be- 
lieve that the disease would be entirely stamped out, even in its native 
haunts, by a destruction of all sick and infected herds. However this 
may be, the success of such an undertaking would largely depend on 



390 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tlie nature of the cause. If a strictly parasitic organism, like the eon- 
tagiuin of pleuropneumonia, it might be completely extirpated in this 
way. If, however, the germs or bacteria may live and multiply outside 
of the bovine body, in the soil, water, or some other animal, extirpation 
would be impossible. 

The virus may be transmitted from sick to healthy animals in a vari- 
ety of ways, both direct and indirect. It is said to be present in the 
various excreta of the diseased, such as the discharges from the nose 
and the saliva, the urine, and the manure. It retains its vitality out- 
side of the body in a moist state for months, even a year or more, 
according to some authorities. Hence manure and the fodder and bed- 
ding soiled with the discharges may convey the disease. When dried, 
however, its vitality is said to be lost in a few days. Persons may 
carry the virus on their shoes, clothing, and implements. Even small 
animals, such as cats and rats, which frequent barns and stables have 
been looked upon as carriers of the virus. 

Cattle are very susceptible to the disease, and in its virulent type 
all those exposed are said to become infected. Buffaloes, sheep, and 
goats are likewise susceptible, but in a less degree. 

It is also claimed that animals after having passed through one attack 
are able to resist successfully future attacks. Inoculation with virus 
is said to produce immunity, but the process of inoculation itself is 
followed by death in many cases. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of rinderpest are not very characteristic, 
and hence the diagnosis of a suspected case in the beginning of an 
invasion is attended with difficulties. Certain appearances which are 
characteristic of one epizootic may be absent in another. Different 
observers are not quite agreed as to the most constant and important. 

The period of incubation, *. e., the time elapsing between the expos- 
ure to infection and the earliest outward symptoms, varies from 3 to 9 
days. Then the first sign is a very high fever temperature, which may 
reach 107° F. The heat of the skin varies in different parts of the 
body, and may be felt at the base of the ears and horns. Repeated 
chills are frequently observed. The pulse reaches 50 to 60 beats per 
minute, and may rise to 90 or 100 in very severe attacks. 

The animal manifests great debility. The head droops and rests on 
some object of support. One or both ears may droop. The coat is 
staring and the muzzle dry. The secretion of milk diminishes very 
rapidly. Within twelve to twenty hours the usual quantity may have 
become reduced one-half or two-thirds. The back is arched, and the 
four limbs brought together under the body. 

As the disease progresses symptoms with reference to the digestive 
and respiratory organs become prominent. The mucous membrane of 
the mouth, the nose, as well as that of the rectum and vagina, becomes 
reddened either in patches or diffusely, and assumes a scarlet hue. The 
discharges, at first firm, become softer, and soon diarrhea sets in. This 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 391 

js said to be one of the most constant symptoms. The rectum may 
become everted and paralyzed, and the bowels move spontaneously. 
The discharges may be streaked with blood. Coughing is a common 
symptom, and by some considered characteristic. It is associated with 
(discharges from the nose and vagina, and dribbling of saliva from the 
mouth. The eyes also are affected. There is an increased formation 
of a viscid secretion which flows down the face. 

Another series of changes prominent in some epizootics and mild or 
absent in others are the ulcers or so-called erosions in the mouth. 
These begin as red patches and streaks. The mucous membrane in such 
'localities is converted into a grayish-white slough, which, when shed, 
leaves a small erosion ( or ulcer. At the same time similar changes may 
go on jin the skin of the thighs, the udder, or the scrotum, and about 
the vagina, which lead to small sloughs. 

In severe cases, which are the most common in the susceptible cattle 
<of western Europe, death ensues four to seven days after the first 
appearance of the disease, and is preceded by great emaciation and 
debility, fetid, purulent discharges from nose and mouth, and the 
relaxed rectum and vagina. 

After death, if the animal be opened and the organs carefully exam- 
ined, the chief changes will be found in the digestive organs. The 
lining membrane of the mouth and pharynx is covered with mucus, is 
reddened in spots, and shows superficial yellowish gray, cheesy patches, 
.which represent dead tissue and when removed expose ulcerated depres- 
sions. The same reddening in spots and the yellowish gray, cheesy 
.deposits or patches are found in the fourth stomach, the small intes- 
tines, and more rarely in the csecum, while the third stomach or many- 
plies is more or less impacted with dry, hard food. Similar changes 
may be found on the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity, the uterus, 
yagina, and rectum. In addition to these lesions are others with refer- 
ence to the heart, liver, and other vital organs, which need not concern 
,us here. 

Neither treatment nor inoculation is permitted in European countries. 

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. 

This disease is also known as epizootic aphtha, aphthous fever, eczema 
epizootica, and may be defined as an acute, highly contagious fever of a 
specific nature, characterized by the eruption of vesicles or blisters 
in the mouth, around the coronets of the feet, and between the toes. It 
is not restricted to cattle, but attacks swine with equal facility. Sheep 
and goats are less susceptible. Horses, dogs, cats, and fowls are rarely 
attacked. Human beings may become infected by drinking the unboiled 
milk from animals suffering with the disease. In such cases the symp- 
toms resemble those observed in animals. There is fever aud difficulty in 
swallowing, followed by an eruption of blisters in the mouth and very 
rarely by similar ones on the fingers. The disease is very seldom fatal, 



392 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

and chiefly restricted to children and to those adults who handle sick 
animals or drink large quantities of unboiled milk. Some veterina- 
rians regard the human affection as by no means uncommon in countries 
where foot-and-mouth disease prevails, but that the disturbance of 
health is usually too slight to come to the notice of the family doctor. 

The disease prevails in European countries and occasions great losses. 
Although the actual mortality is quite low, and not more than 1 to 3 per 
cent of the affected animals die, serious losses result from the diminu- 
tion of the milk secretion and consequent interference with the busi- 
ness of the dairy. There is likewise more or less loss of iiesk in 
animals. 

According to the very accurate statistics collected by the German 
Empire, 431,235 head of cattle, 230,868 sheep and goats, and 153,808 
swine were affected with the disease in that country in 1890. The 
infection, quite insignificant in 1886, had been gradually spreading 
until it reached the enormous figures given above in 1890. During 
this same year it prevailed in France, Italy, Belgium, Austria- Hungary, 
Switzerland, Roumania, and Bulgaria. 

Contrary to most other infectious diseases, foot-and-mouth disease 
may attack the same animals repeatedly, provided the intervals between 
the attacks are longer than six to twelve months. The immunity or 
protection conferred is thus only of limited duration. Hence protective 
inoculation with the virus, in whatever manner it may be practiced, is 
not only of no use but decidedly dangerous, as it will introduce the 
disease. Itis, however, not uncommon in European countries to practice 
inoculation after the disease has appeared in a herd in order to hasten 
its progress. This is highly recommended by some, since it not only 
hastens the infection, but the disease is apt to be milder and limited to 
the mouth. It consists in rubbiug with the finger or a piece of cloth a 
little of the mucus from the mouth of a diseased animal upon the inner 
surface of the upper lip of those to be inoculated. From 50 to 75 per cent 
of the inoculated animals take the disease. 

As with other communicable diseases, the source and origin of foot- 
and-mouth disease has given rise to much speculation. The disease had 
been known in Europe for centuries, but it was not until a comparatively 
recent date that the erroneous conceptions of its spontaneous origin as 
a result of climatic and metorological conditions, exhausting journeys, 
etc., were abandoned. It is now generally conceded that foot-and-mouth 
disease is propagated by a specific virus and that every outbreak starts 
from some preexisting outbreak. 

The infection is contained in the eruptions, and hence shed from the 
mouth and the feet. A wide distribution of the virus and a rapid infec- 
tion of a herd is the result. Animals may be infected directly by coming- 
in contact with the diseased, or they may be exposed to the virus in 
stables, in the field and along roads, in cars, and in all places shortly 
before frequented by diseased cattle. Human beings may carry the 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 393 

virus on their clothing and transmit it on their hands when milking, 
siuce the udder is occasionally the seat of the eruption. Milk in a raw 
state may also transmit the disease to animals fed with it. 

The observations made by some veterinarians would lead us to sup- 
pose that the virus is quite readily destroyed. It is claimed that stables 
thoroughly cleaned become safe after drying for a short time. Hence 
litter of all kinds, such as manure, soiled hay, and straw, may remain 
infective for a longer time because they do not dry out. Other author- 
ities maintain that the virus is quite tenacious and may live in stables 
even as long as a year. They also state that animals which have passed 
through the disease may be a source of infection for several months 
after recovery. 

Symptoms. — After a period of incubation, lasting from three to five 
days and sometimes not longer than two days, the disease begins with 
a fever. The temperature does not as a rule rise above 104° F. The 
lining membrane of the mouth becomes reddened, the appetite is dimin- 
ished, and rumination ceases. The mouth is usually kept closed and 
the quantity of saliva is increased. A smacking sound is not infre- 
quently made by the animal. These symptoms are chiefly due to the 
pain accompanying the disease in the mouth. After two or three days 
the eruption appears. This consists of small yellowish- white vesicles 
or blisters, about as large as a hemp seed or a pea, on the gums and 
inner surface of lips, the inside of the cheeks, the border and under 
surface of the tongue. They may become half an inch or more in diam- 
eter. In some cases the back of the tongue near the tip may be the 
seat of large blisters. 

These vesicles burst soon after their appearance, sometimes on the 
first day. More rarely they may persist two or three days if small. 
After they have ruptured the grayish white membrane forming the 
blister may remain attached for a day or more, or disappear speedily 
and leave deeply reddened spots or erosions, which are very painful. 
These exposed spots may soon become covered again with the normal 
epithelium, or else be converted into ulcers under unfavorable condi- 
tions. In this stage the saliva forms in large quantities and hangs in 
strings from the mouth. In eight to fourteen days the disease may 
have entirely disappeared. 

In addition to the changes goiDg on in the mouth, one or more feet 
may become diseased. The skin around the coronet and in the cleft 
between the toes becomes hot and tender and may swell. Blisters ap- 
pear in the mouth, but they are speedily ruptured, and the inflamed, 
exposed spots covered with a viscid substance (exudate). 

The disease may attack the udder in cows, or more particularly the 
teats. Some authorities regard the udder disease merely as the result 
of infection during milking. The vesicles are broken as they appear 
by the hands of the milker, and the teats become covered with red- 
dened spots deprived of the superficial layer of skin, and are very 



394 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tender. The healing, however, goes on quite rapidly. The milk is 
said to be somewhat changed in appearance. It becomes viscid and 
coagulates more quickly and is more or less unfit for making butter 
•and cheese. 

These are the main symptoms accompanying an uncomplicated case 
of foot-and-mouth disease. In all such recovery is rapid and complete 5 
but occasionally complications arise which are not only very injurious 
but may be fatal. Thus the mouth lesions may be accompanied by 
nasal catarrh or pneumonia. The feet, especially, are liable to suffer 
when neglected. They may become very much swollen, and the inflam- 
mation and suppuration extend to the tendons and bones of the foot., 
'or the hoof may be shed. In such cases the animals rarely recover. 

As a result of the general affection young calves may succumb to a 
secondary inflammation of the stomach and bowels, and older animals 
may abort or suffer from inflammation of the udder. 

Treatment. — As the disease is mild and tends to rapid recovery, no 
/general treatment, excepting that which tends to put the animals in the 
best condition, is required. Since the secondary diseases and conrplj- 
'cations are the most injurious, and as they are largely the result of 
'other bacteria, the greatest care should be exercised in keeping the 
^animals and their surroundings clean. The bedding should be light, and 
'dry, and frequently changed to prevent further injury to the feet. The 
animals should not stand upon hard -or rough floors. 

To relieve the irritation in the mouth various solutions haye been 
'recommended. Among these are borax, l^unce in .3 pints of water; 
^water containing vinegar and salt; alum 1 ounce in a quart of water. 
"These may be applied with a syringe or poured in from a bottle, or else 
;an irrigator may be impro vised by attaching a funnel to a rubber tube. 
'The funnel is elevated and cthe liquor poured into it. The pressure 
'necessary may be increased or diminished by raising or lowering the 
ifunnel. The injections may be practiced once or twice a day, and about 
ihalf a pint injected each time. The blisters should not be opened. 

For the feet in mild cases, in addition to cleanliness and proper bed- 
'ding, nothing is required. Some veterinarians, however, recommend 
antiseptic and astringent applications to prevent further mischief. For 
this purpose they may be gently bathed in water containing 1 ounce of 
alum to the pint, or in Burow's solution (powdered alum 1 ounce, pow- 
dered lead acetate 2 ounces, water 3 quarts). Carbolic acid, 1 ounce in 
3 pints of water, or equal parts of wood tar and olive oil are recom- 
mended. At the same time some veterinarians state that these sub- 
stances communicate unpleasant odors to the milk and therefore should 
only be used for oxen and young animals. 

For the affection of the teats simple glycerine or glycerine contain- 
ing one-fourth dram of boracic acid to the ounce may be applied several 
times a day, or zinc ointment containing preferably -30 drops of the 
'tincture of opium to the ounce. Burow's solution given above may 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 395 

also be applied. Care should be taken to withdraw the milk at proper 
intervals. 

VESICULAR ERUPTION OF THE GENITAL ORGANS. 

This contagious disease is not known in our country, but it is more 
or less prevalent on the Continent. It is the subject of legislation in 
Germany, and governmental statistics are published annually concern- 
ing its distribution in the Empire. According to the latest reports 
5,782 head of cattle were attacked during 1890, and there has been a 
constant increase in the number of cases since 1886. 

A similar or perhaps identical disease of horses has the same distrp 
bution. Whether, however, such disease is transmissible from horses 
to cattle and vice versa has not been definitely determined. 

The disease may be denned as a highly contagious eruption situated 
Upon the external genital organs of both sexes, and accompanied with 
little or no general disturbance of health. The contagion is transmitted 
mainly during copulation. The bull may have the disease and convey 
it to all the cows with which he comes in contact. Or he may become 
infected by one cow, and, although not showing the disease, he may 
transmit it for several days after to all other cows during copulation. 
Simple contact between one cow and another may convey the disease 4 
or the sponges used in cleaning the diseased may carry the virus to 
the healthy. 

Symptoms. — The period elapsing between the infection and the appear- 
ance of symptoms is somewhat variable. It is usually given as three to 
six days. It may be briefer or much longer. In cows the mucous mem- 
brane of the vagina and the vulva become swollen, reddened, and very 
tender. The secretion is very abundant and consists at first largely of 
serum and mucus. Small vesicles then appear which rapidly burst and 
are converted into excoriations or deeper ulcerations. The secretion 
becomes more purulent, and is apt to dry in crusts about the root of the 
tail. The eruption is accompanied with much itching and difficulty in 
urinating. The walk may be stiff and awkward. In bulls the eruption 
is situated on the prepuce and the end of the penis, and is accompanied 
by a little purulent discharge from the prepuce, itching and difficulty 
in urinating. In severe cases the inflammation and swelling may extend 
backward to the scrotum and forward upon the abdomen. 

The disease lasts from two to four weeks, and always terminates in 
recovery. The acute stage lasts only four or five days, while the com- 
plete healing of the inflammation is slow. The eruption is usually ac- 
companied by very little general disturbance. If the pain and irrita- 
tion are severe there may be some slight loss of appetite and diminished 
milk secretion. 

Treatment need not be resorted to excepting in severe cases. The 
secretion and exudation should be washed off and a mild antiseptic 
applied, such as a 1 per cent solution of carbolic acid (1 ounce to 3 



396 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

quarts of water). Care must be taken not to carry the disease from 
the sick to the well by sponges, etc., which have come in contact with 
the affected organs. These should be destroyed. To prevent the spread 
of the disease the infected animals should be kept isolated until they 
have recovered. 

RABIES OR HYDROPHOBIA. 

Babies is a disease which seems to originate in the canine race and 
which may be transmitted to other species of animals and to man 
through bites. There are some writers who maintaiu that it may arise 
spontaneously in the dog without previous inoculation. The advances 
made in our knowledge by the researches of Pasteur and others do not 
favor this view, but lead directly to the inference that rabies is always 
communicated from a preceding case, and that it never originates spon- 
taneously. 

We must assume, therefore, that the disease is always transmitted 
by the bite of the rabid animal. The saliva contains the virus which 
is introduced into or under the skin on the tooth of the rabid animal. 

By no means are all bites followed by rabies. According to some 
authorities only one-fourth of the inoculated cattle become diseased. 
This low percentage may be due to the kind of wound inflicted. When 
the bleeding is very profuse the virus may be washed out at once. As 
to the nature of this virus nothing is definitely known, although Pas- 
teur and his co-workers have made prolonged efforts in this direction. 

In general the virus behaves like bacterial poisons. It may be trans- 
mitted from one animal to another by single inoculation, just as we 
may preserve the virus of other infectious diseases. 

From these facts it becomes evident that the virus of rabies can only 
be transmitted directly from the sick to the healthy, and that for this 
transmission a wound is necessary. Since the virus is contained in the 
saliva, the disease may be artificially produced by inoculating an animal 
with the saliva of some rabid animal. Healthy animals, from the nature 
of the case, can not carry the virus. It is still a widely prevalent belief 
that if persons or animals are bitten by a dog, for instance, they are 
liable to become rabid when such a dog contracts rabies at any time in 
the future. There is no foundation for such belief, and it would be a 
great comfort to many people who are now and then bitten by animals 
if such belief were given up. There is no foundation for the theory 
that rabies may be caused by the bite of an animal which has been 
inoculated, but in which the disease has not yet appeared. All exper- 
ience, both scientific and practical, goes to show that rabies is trans- 
mitted only by animals actually diseased. 

Babies is not a very uncommon disease in cattle in those regions 
where rabid dogs are occasionally found. Thus in the German Empire 
carefully compiled statistics have shown that next to" dogs cattle are 
more frequently affected than any other of the domesticated animals. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 397 

In 1890 590 clogs, 98 head of cattle, 11 cats, and 9 pigs were found 
rabid. These figures are easily explained when we take into considera- 
tion the relation between dogs and cattle. The latter are very much 
exposed to the bites of the former on pastures. It is also well known 
that dogs are more or less trained and incited to worry cattle at all 
times. The latter receive bites most frequently on the hind legs and in 
the hips and about the lower jaw. These places are most accessible to 
dogs, owing to the habit of cattle to drive their tormentors away by 
lowering their head and using their horns. 

The virus after being deposited in the wound by the bite of a rabid 
animal, remains latent for a time. This period of incubation is quite 
variable in duration. One veterinarian (Gerlach) collected the statis- 
tics of 133 cases, and found this period to vary from 14 to 285 days. 
The majority of cases, however, contract the disease in from one to three 
months after the bite has been inflicted. 

Symptoms. — The disease may be divided into a preliminary stage, a 
stage of excitation or madness, and a paralytic stage. In all cases the 
termination is fatal and the entire course is from 5 to 6 days. The pre- 
liminary stage is indicated by loss of appetite and rumination, great 
restlessness, anxiety, and manifestation of fear. The second stage is 
characterized by increasing restlessness, loud roaring at times with 
changed voice, violent butting with the horns and pawing the ground 
with the feet. A constant symptom is the increased secretion of saliva 
which hangs from the mouth in strings, and which may be frothy. Con- 
stipation is marked, and there is manifested a continual effort to 
defecate, which is unsuccessful. Spasms of the muscles in different 
parts of the body are also present at intervals. 

In the final stage symp tons' of paralysis appear, especially in the 
posterior limbs, and the walk becomes stiff, unsteady, and swaying. 
Complete paralysis of the posterior half of the body may appear be- 
fore death. In this final stage the body is very much emaciated, in 
spite of the brief duration of the disease. It should also be stated that 
there is no fever or elevation of temperature during the disease. If 
cattle which have succumbed to rabies be opened very slight evidence 
of disease will be found anywhere. The blood is dark and imperfectly 
coagulated. The throat may be reddened and there may be small spots 
of extravasated blood in the intestines. The stomachs are usually empty. 
In the spleen there may be hemorrhagic enlargements (infarcts). The 
cadavers rapidly undergo decomposition. 

It is not an easy matter to decide whether a given animal has rabies, 
since the symptons and the lesions given above belong in part to a 
variety of other diseases. The positive evidence that a rabid dog has 
been near cattle would greatly assist in making a decision in doubtful 
cases. The disease in dogs is pretty well recognized by most people, 
but in case a suspected dog is killed it is desirable to open the animal 
and examine the contents of the stomach. While food is absent a 



398 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

variety of odd things may be present whieh the abnormally changed 
appetite of the rabid dog has induced him to swallow. Among such 
things may be straws, sticks, glass, rags, earth, pieces of leather and 
whatever the animal may have encountered small enough to be swallowed. 
This miscellaneous collection in the stomach of dogs is regarded by au- 
thorities as a very valuable sign, and may be made use of by layman in 
case of doubt. 

Treatment is out of the question after the symptoms have once ap- 
peared. When, however, soon after a bite has been inflicted by a 
rabid dog, the wound can be found it may be desirable to cauterize it 
with the hot iron or with strong acids, alkalies, or even to cut out the 
entire wound if such procedure is possible. Prevention which seeks to 
control effectively the disease by restricting it among dogs is most 
likely to prove successful. The measures which are adapted to this end 
can not be discussed in this place. 

The method of preventive inoculation which Pasteur has originated 
and which seems to be so successful in the human subject is not appli- 
cable to animals for various reasons. 

TUBERCULOSIS.* 

(Plates xxix, Fig. 6; xxxiv to xxxvm, inclusive.) 

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease characterized by the formation 
in various organs of the body of minute nodules or tubercles which con- 
tain the bacillus tuberculosis, the cause of the disease. 

The disease, in its various manifestations, has been known for many 
centuries, and legislative enactments having reference to the destruc- 
tion of affected animals and forbidding the use of the flesh date far back 
into the Middle Ages. The opinions entertained regarding the nature 
and the cause of the malady varied much in different periods, and very 
markedly influenced the laws and regulations in vogue. Thus, in the 
sixteenth century, the disease was considered identical with syphilis in 
man. In consequence of this belief very stringent laws were enacted, 
which made the destruction of tuberculous cattle compulsory. In the 
eighteenth century this erroneous conception of the nature of the dis- 
ease was abandoned and all restrictions against the use of meat were 
removed. Since that time, however, the tide of opinion has again 
turned against this disease. The particular opinion held at any time 
concerning its nature usually furnished for it a name. There are in 
most languages, therefore, a large number of peculiar terms which have 
accumulated, but which do not concern us here. 

Occurrence. — The statistics concerning tuberculosis show that it is a 
disease prevalent in all civilized countries. In some countries, such as 
the northern part of Norway and Sweden, on the steppes of eastern 

* For a brief account of the disease in other animals, see the Report of the Secretary 
of Agriculture for 1889, p. 63. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 399) 

Europe and Russia, in Sicily and Iceland, and in Algiers it is said to 
H>e quite rare. In most countries an effort is now being made to deter- 
mine more accurately the prevalence of this disease. Some very valu- 
able tables have been published by the German Government for the 
year extending- from October, 1888, to October, 1889. We learn froin 
this that of 1,270,001 animals killed for beef in public abattoirs 20,352,, 
or about 2 per cent, were tuberculous. 

In France, according to figures given by Arloing, there are, on the 
average, 5 animals tuberculous in every 1,000, or about one-half per cent.. 
In the various cities of France the figures obtained by inspectors at the 
abattoirs vary from 1.43 to 14.5 per 1,000, the observation extending: 
over a period of one to five years. In Belgium, according to Van Hert- 
sen, the rate is 4 per cent. In Holland it varies from 4 to 19.6 per 
1,000. In England, according to Cope, it varies from 1 to 26 per cent,, 
according to the locality. At Copenhagen, according to Bang, during 
1888, the rate was per cent; for cows alone it rose to 16 per cent. In 
the Argentine Republic, according to Even , tuberculosis seems to attack 
the recently imported improved stock (10 to 15 per cent), while it is 
comparatively rare among natives (one-half per cent). 

In our own country cattle (mostly milch cows) slaughtered at Balti- 
more under the auspices of this Bureau several years ago were found 
tuberculous to the extent of 2£ to 3£ per cent. Among 2,273,547 head 
of cattle, chiefly steers, slaughtered for beef in the various meat in- 
spection districts of the United States from May 15, 1891, to March 1,, 
1892, only 492 or .02 per cent were found tuberculous. For the year 
ending December 31, 1889, there were found in the same districts among 
54,158 cows 669 cases of tuberculosis, or 1.23 per cent. 

It is not far from the truth to assume from these statistics that one 
of every fifty head of cattle in the more densely populated areas of 
Europe and America is tuberculous. When we consider the age and 
sex of the affected animals some striking differences are observed. 
According to the German report the statistics of a large number of 
abattoirs showed that 6.9 per cent of the cows, 3.6 per cent of the oxen, 
2.6 per cent of the bulls, and not quite 1 per cent of the calves and 
yearlings were tuberculous. It has also been observed that tuberculosis 
iucreases in frequency with the age of the animals. If we take the 
number of cases of animals of a year and under affected with tubercu- 
losis as the unit of comparison, animals from one to three years old 
furnish ten times, those three to six years old thirty times, and those 
over six years forty times the number of cases. 

The cause of this disease may be considered as twofold, the tubercle 
bacillus first and foremost, without which this disease could never 
develop, and certain predisposing causes which prepare the way for it. 
First, as to the ways in which tubercle bacilli find their way into the body. 
These in the order of their importance may be considered under four 
heads: (1) By inhalation into the lungs; (2) into the digestive tract in 



400 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the milk of tuberculous cows ; (3) during coition when the sexual organs 
are tuberculous ; (4) from the tuberculous mother to the fetus in the 
uterus. Inhalation is by far the most common mode of infection, since 
statistics show a large percentage of primary lung disease in cattle. 
Thus in the German report quoted the lungs were found 14J times more 
frequently diseased than the digestive organs. 

The bacilli can only get into the lungs when inhaled. Tliey must, 
therefore, be thoroughly dried and pulverized before currents of air can 
carry them. It is well known that the bacilli withstand drying for 
months before they lose their power of producing disease. They leave 
the body of diseased animals in several ways. There may be a little 
discharge occasionally coughed up from the diseased lungs, or milk may 
be spilt, or there may be a discharge from the vagina when the genital 
organs are tuberculous. The bacilli from these sources may become 
dried and pulverized, and carried in the air of the stable and into the 
lungs of still healthy cattle where the disease then develops. 

The disease of the stomach, intestines, and mesenteric glands is very 
probably the result of food infection. Tubercle bacilli may have been 
scattered upon the feed by diseased animals. But the most common 
source of such infection is the milk of tuberculous cows. Calves may 
become infected in this way. The disease may remain latent until the 
animal becomes older. The not infrequent occurrence of tuberculosis 
of the uterus and ovaries makes it probable that the disease may be 
transmitted by a diseased bull, or carried by a healthy bull from a dis- 
eased cow to a number of healthy cows. 

The source of infection is always some previous case of the disease, for 
the latter can never arise spontaneously. Hence, in those stables in 
which there is frequent change of cattle, the introduction of tuberculo- 
sis by cattle coming from other infected stables is the most frequent 
source of infection. Since the bacilli, when dried, can be carried by the 
air it is not necessary that healthy animals should come in direct con- 
tact with cases of disease to become infected. 

We will now briefly consider the various conditions which favor the 
bacilli in their attack. Unsanitary conditions, such as overcrowding 
in poorly- ventilated and poorly- lighted stables, and feeding of food 
which is not nutritious, are not insignificant in this respect. Condi- 
tions which injure the lungs are favorable to the development of tuber- 
culosis. Among these are the inhalation of dust and smoke, and all 
conditions which may induce chronic inflammation of the bronchial 
tubes, with abundant secretion and subsequent pneumonia (broncho- 
pneumonia). Among the other causes which are said to favor tuber- 
culosis is the overproduction of milk, too many births, the improvement 
of stock by continual inbreeding, and the consequent inheritance of 
certain constitutional characters of a debilitating nature. Animals 
living in the lowlands are more subject to this disease than the more 
robust races living in elevated mountain regions. Similarly, animals 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 401 

on the open pasture are less susceptible than stabled animals. This 
may, however, be due to concentration of virus in the stables. The dis- 
ease is likewise far more common in cows than in oxen, owing to the 
strain to which bringing forth young and milking subject the females. 
Animals subjected to special feeding, such as cows in distilleries, brew- 
eries, and other manufactories having waste available as food, are the 
most susceptible to the disease. In general the greatest number of 
cases occur in the immediate environment of cities where there are not 
only abundant opportunities for infection, owing to the frequent intro- 
duction of new animals into herds, but where the sanitary conditions 
may be regarded as the poorest. 

Nature of the disease. — The bacillus of tuberculosis was discovered by 
Robert Koch in 1882. It (see Plate xxix Fig. 6) is a slender rod-like 
body from one-third to two- thirds the diameter of a red-blood corpuscle 
in length. When the bacillus has become lodged in any organ or tis- 
sue it begins to multiply, and thereby causes an irritation in the tissue 
around it which leads to the formation of the so-called tubercle, whence 
the general name of the disease — tuberculosis. The tubercle, when it 
has reached its full growth is a little nodule about the size of a millet 
seed. It is composed of several kinds of tissue cells. Soon a change 
takes place within the tubercle. Disintegration begins, and a soft, 
cheesy substance is formed in the center which may contain particles 
of lime salts. When these tubercles continue to form in large numbers 
they run together, forming masses of various size. The disintegration 
which attacks them leads to the formation of large cheesy masses of a 
yellowish color, containing more or less of lime salts in the form of 
gritty particles. These large, tuberculous masses are surrounded by 
or imbedded in layers of fibrous tissue which in some cases becomes 
very dense and thick. 

The disease is thus a development of these tubercles in one or more 
organs of the body. The distribution and number of these determine 
the course of the disease. 

In a large number of cases the changes are limited to the lungs and 
the serous membranes * of the thorax and abdomen. Pathologists have 
been in the habit of calling the lung disease tuberculosis and the dis- 
ease of the serous membranes "pearly disease." Statistics have shown 
that in about one-half the cases both lungs and serous membranes 
are diseased, in one-third only the lungs, and in one-fifth only the 
serous membranes. At the same time the lymphatic glands near the 
diseased organs are usually involved. Other organs, such as the liver, 
not infrequently contain tubercles. Though the disease may remain 
restricted to a single organ, it now and then is found generalized, affect- 
ing all organs of the body. 

* These comprise the smooth, very delicate, glistening lining of the large body 
cavities. In the thorax the serous membrane (pleura) covers the ribs and diaphragm 
as well as the whole lung surface. In the abdomen a similar membrane (perito- 
neum) lines the interior of the cavity and covers the bowels, liver, spleen, ets, 
24697 26 



402 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Iii the lungs (Plate xxxiv) the changes observed vary according to the 
age and intensity of the disease process. They usually begin with the 
appearance of very minute tubercles. These may appear in large num- 
bers on the surface of the lungs or within the lung tissue. Later the 
contents become cheesy and partly calcified. "When these tubercles 
are sufficiently numerous to become confluent large masses may be 
formed, which undergo the same retrogressive changes of caseation 
and calcification. In addition to the formation of tubercles in the lung 
tissue certain other changes take place. There is usually present bron- 
chitis with abundant catarrhal secretion. This plugs up the smaller 
air-tubes, and the lung tissue supplied by these tubes with air collapses. 
Subsequently it becomes filled with yellowish, cheesy matter, which 
greatly distends the small air-tubes and air vesicles (broncho-pneu- 
monia). The connective tissue between the lung lobules, around the 
tubercles and around the air tubes, becomes thickened and indurated. 
In the larynx and the bronchi tubercles may vegetate upon the mucous 
membrane, and ulcers may result from their breaking down. The in- 
flammatory irritation which the growth of the tubercles on the sur- 
face of the lungs arouses gives rise to adhesion of the lungs to the 
ribs and diaphragm. This adhesion is sometimes so firm and extensive 
that the lungs appear grown to the chest wall. 

When, therefore, the lungs in advanced stages of the disease are cut 
open we observe large yellowish masses, from one-quarter to three- 
quarters of an inch in diameter, of a cheesy texture, in which calcified, 
gritty particles are embedded and which are surrounded by very firm 
connective tissue. The neighboring lung tissue, when collapsed and 
involved in broncho-pneumonia, has the color and consistency of pale 
red flesh. The air tubes, large and small, stand out prominently on 
the cut surface. They are distended with a pasty, yellowish, cheesy 
mass, surrounded and enveloped in thick mucus, and their walls greatly 
thickened. The larger bronchi may be sacculated, owing to the dis- 
tension produced by the cheesy contents. 

The disease usually attacks the bronchial glands, which are situated 
on the trachea and bronchial tubes at the bifurcation. The changes in 
the glands are the same as those going on in the lung tissue, and they 
frequently reach an enormous size. 

The tubercle formation on the serous membranes covering the lungs 
and chest wall, which may go on at the same time with the lung disease 
or independent of it, has been called "pearly disease," on account of 
the peculiar appearance of the tubercles. These begin as very minute 
grayish nodules, which give the originally smooth, lustrous membrane 
a roughened appearance. These minute tubercles enlarge, become con- 
fluent, and project above the surface of the membrane as wart-like 
masses, attaining the size of peas. In this stage their attachment to 
the membrane is by means of delicate fibers. The attachment is loose, 
so that the tubercle hangs by a short pedicle or neck and may be 
moved slightly to and fro. Large masses are frequently formed by a 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 403 

coalescence of many tubercles and the secondary formation of the same. 
These maybe found on the lungs, the ribs, and the diaphragm. These 
tubercles likewise undergo degenerative changes. The center partly 
softens, partly calcifies into a grayish mortar-like mass, and when cut into 
they are found to be gritty. Associated with the formation of tubercles 
on the pleura, those glands situated back of the lungs (posterior medias- 
tinal) become greatly enlarged and the center cheesy. (Plate xxxvi.) 
They may compress the esophagus and interfere with swallowing. 
The size attained by these tumors and new growths is well illustrated 
by the fact that, taken together, they not infrequently weigh from 60 to 
80 pounds. The bronchial glands, which in the healthy state are not 
as large as horse-chestnuts, have been found to attain a weight of over 
10 pounds. 

In the abdominal cavity tubercles may be found, both in the organs 
and on the serous membranes covering them. They are situated pref- 
erably on the omentum or caul (see Plates xxxvii, xxxviii, Fig. 2), the 
diaphragm, and the walls of the abdomen. In the liver large and small 
tubercular masses are occasionally encountered. (See Plate xxxv.) 
The mesenteric glands (see Plate xxxviii, Fig. 1) are occasionally en- 
larged and tuberculous; likewise the glands near the liver. Tubercles 
may also develop in the spleen, the kidneys, the uterus and ovaries, and 
the testicles. 

Tubercular affection of the intestines seems to be quite rare, although 
ulcers of the large intestines have been observed. Nodules may also 
form under the serous covering of the intestines. 

The brain and spinal cord are occasionally found tuberculous. Of 
40 cases, Semmer found tuberculosis of the brain in 4. It is not 
improbable that, owing to the infrequency of exposing the brain and 
spinal cord, tuberculosis may have escaped the attention of patholo- 
gists, and it may be that it is not so uncommon as is generally supposed. 
The tubercles occur on the membranes of the brain as well as in the 
substance of the brain itself. They project into the ventricles as masses 
varying in size from a pin's head to a hen's egg. They finally lead to 
various inflammatory changes. Johne has observed numerous small 
tubercles on the membranes of the spinal cord. 

Very rarely tuberculous lesions have been observed in the bones and 
muscles of the body. Not so rare, however, is the affection of the 
lymphatic glands imbedded in the muscular tissue and those which can 
be felt beneath the skin. These are situated at the joints, under the 
jaw, and along the neck. 

Tubercular disease of the udder in cows has received considerable 
attention of late from sanitarians, owing to the infection of the milk 
with the virus of tuberculosis. According to those who have given this 
subject special attention the udder becomes swollen uniformly and 
quite firm. This swelling, which is painless, frequently attacks but one 
quarter, more rarely two, these being usually the hind quarters. The 
larger milk ducts contain yellowish cheesy particles, in which are many 



404 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tubercle bacilli. Later on, larger nodules can be felt within the udder, 
which undergo the various changes to which tubercles are subject. The 
udder may grow very hard to the touch and become very large, weigh- 
ing in some cases up to 40 pounds. The milk, at first normal, becomes 
thin and watery after a month or so, and is mixed with flakes and tuber- 
cle bacilli. 

As regards the frequency of the tubercular processes in the different 
organs, the following carefully compiled statistics of the disease in 
Bavaria and Baden may serve as a guide : 

Bavaria : Per cent. 

Tuberculosis of lungs and serous membranes 41 

Tuberculosis of lungs alone 33 

Tuberculosis of serous membranes alone (pearly disease) 17 

Tuberculosis of other organs 8 

Baden : 

Tuberculosis of lungs alone 21 

Tuberculosis of serous membranes alone 28 

Both combined 39 

Generalized tuberculosis 9 

Tuberculosis of the sexual organs alone 3 

Symptoms. — The beginning of the disease usually passes unnoticed, 
inasmuch as it is very slow and insidious and rarely accompanied by 
fever. When the lungs are involved a dull, short cough is noticed, 
which may later on become prolonged, convulsive, and very trouble- 
some to the animal. The cough is more frequent in the morning after 
movement and drinking. The breathing varies. Only when much of 
the lung tissue is diseased, it is labored and accompanied by active 
movements of the chest and nostrils. Discharge from the nose is rare 
or absent. At times, however, when the tubercles have broken down 
and cavities containing cheesy masses have formed in the lung tissue, 
or when the air- tubes have become filled with cheesy and mucous masses, 
coughing will dislodge these and cause their discharge. In advanced 
stages the breath may have a disagreeable odor. Pressure on the chest 
wall may give rise to pain. 

The general effect on the body is at first slight. In fact, animals may 
remain in good flesh for a considerable time. Invariably, as the dis- 
ease progresses, loss of flesh and appetite and paleness of the mucous 
membranes become manifest. These are accompanied by a gradual 
diminution of the milk secretion. The debilitated condition of the 
animal is also manifested by a staring coat and a tough, dry, harsh 
skin (hide-bound). Digestive disturbances are indicated by tympa- 
nitis, or distension of the rumen by gas, colic, and diarrhea, alternating 
with constipation. The animal generally dies from exhaustion after a 
period of sickness which may last months and years. 

Tuberculosis in the abdominal organs is often signalized by abortion 
and by abnormal sexual manifestations. When the brain is involved 
the disease may cause convulsions, unconsciousness, paralysis, as well 
as peculiar movements in a circle, oblique position of the head, etc. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 405 

Lydtin quotes the following description of the disease as taken from a 
Swiss sanitary order: 

A dry, short, interrupted, hoarse cough, which the sick animals manifest espe- 
cially in the moruiug at feediug time, still more after somewhat violent exertion. At 
first these animals may be full-blooded and lay on a considerable amount of fat 
when well fed. As the disease progresses they grow thin and show more and more 
those appearances which indicate diseased nutrition, such as a staring, lusterless, 
disheveled coat; dirty, tense skin, which appears very pale in those regions free 
from hair. The temperature of the skin is below normal. The loss of fat causes 
sinking of the eyes in their sockets. They appear swimming in water, and their 
expression is weak. The cough is more frequent, but never or very rarely accom- 
panied with discharge. The body continues to emaciate even with plenty of food 
and a good appetite, so that the quantity of milk is small. At times, in the early 
stages of the disease, still more in the later, stages, the diseased animals manifest 
considerable tenderness when pressure is applied to the front or the sides of the 
chest, by coughing, moaning, etc. Often all symptoms are wanting in spite of the 
existence of the disease. 

Lydtin also quotes at length a description of the abnormal sexual 
desire occasionally observed among cows when affected with this dis- 
ease. 

Diagnosis. — A disease so varied in its attack upon the different 
organs of the body and in the extent of the disease process must neces- 
sarily lead to mistakes of diagnosis. It has been confounded with the 
later stages of pleuropneumonia, with x>arasitic diseases of the brain, 
the lungs, the intestines, and with actinomycosis. In the early stages 
of the disease diagnosis is very difficult. The various procedures 
which have been suggested from time to time are all based on the 
detection of the tubercle bacilli, and therefore can only be made use of 
by trained veterinarians. At present a method is under trial which 
may be destined to solve the difficulty. It consists in injecting beneath 
the skin a certain quantity of a liquid which represents an extract of 
tubercle bacilli. In cattle which are tuberculous, even to a slight 
degree, an elevation of temperature or a temporary fever will follow 
the injection. In those which are healthy no such reaction takes place. 
Whether the method will prove to be all that it promises can not be 
definitely stated at this time. If it should it will be a great assistance 
to the veterinarian in the detection of this disease. 

Treatment of the disease is not seriously considered by any authori- 
ties at the present time. 

The measures to be adopted to prevent the spreading of the disease 
must take into consideration not only the tubercle bacillus, but like- 
wise all those circumstances which make cattle more susceptible to the 
disease, which have already been dwelt upon. It would be useless 
to repeat here all that has been said above on the transmission of tuber- 
cle bacilli from one animal to another, and on the dangers of certain 
debilitating influences. A careful study of these will show how tuber- 
culosis may, at least in some cases, be prevented. The difficulty of 
determining when cattle first become tuberculous makes it impossible 
to prevent the possibility of infection. Great care should therefore be 



406 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

bestowed upon the breeding, the surroundings, and the food of the ani- 
mal, so that the latter may be put into a condition to resist infection 
even when exposed to it. If the method of diagnosis referred to above 
proves a success, this should be used whenever strange cattle are intro- 
duced into a herd. A rigid exclusion of tuberculous animals, if this 
were possible, would be all that is necessary to prevent the appearance 
of the disea.se, provided cattle are not infected by consumptive per- 
sons and animals, which we can not consider as impossible at the pres- 
ent time. 

Tuberculosis in cattle must also be considered as bearing upon tuber- 
culosis of other domesticated animals, particularly swine. In Europe 
this disease is not so uncommon among swine, while in our own coun- 
try it seems to be practically unknown. The reason for its existence in 
Europe may be looked for in the feeding of pigs with whey in dairies, 
with the offal of the abattoirs and the household refuse generally. If 
tuberculosis is common among cattle it is likely to be transmitted to 
swine kept in this way. There is, however, still some confusion of tuber- 
culosis with other swine diseases, and it may be that the statistics are 
much too high. 

The carcasses of animals which have died of tuberculosis should be 
buried deeply, so that they can not be eaten by other animals. This is 
likewise true of all organs or tissues of slaughtered animals containing 
tubercles. These should never be fed to other animals, such as swine, 
dogs, and cats, and should either be destroyed by fire or else deeply 
buried. 

Bovine tuberculosis and the public health. — The identity between hu- 
man and animal tuberculosis, combined with the extraordinary mor- 
tality of human beings from this disease, often amounting to from 10 to 14 
per cent, has raised the question in all civilized countries as to how far 
animal, and especially bovine, tuberculosis was to blame for this high 
mortality. The medical and veterinary professions have approached 
this problem with equal zeal, and much has come to light within recent 
years which enables us to come to some conclusion. If this disease is 
transmitted from animals to man, how does the transmission take place? 
As comparatively few people come in direct contact with tuberculous 
cattle, it must be, if at all, either through the meat or the milk, or 
through both, that the virus enters the human body. The question 
has thus narrowed itself down to the food products furnished by cattle. 

It has become a very urgent question, especially in the poorer coun- 
tries of Europe, whether all flesh from tuberculous animals is unfit for 
human food. It is argued there that if it can be shown that in the 
majority of cases of tuberculosis the bones and the muscular system are 
free from infection, there is no reason why the meat should not be put 
on sale under certain restrictions. The question may be resolved into 
two divisions: (1) How frequently does the disease invade those parts 
of the body which are used as food? (2) When the disease process is 
manifestly restricted to the internal organs do tubercle bacilli circulate 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 407 

in the blood and lymph, and can they be detected in the muscular 
tissue 1 ? 

(1) Disease of the bones is not unknown, although very rare. Accord- 
ing to Walley it appears chiefly in the spongy bones of the head and 
backbone and in the long bones of the limbs. Occasionally the ends of 
the bones, where they are covered by the synovial membrane of the 
joints, are dotted with tubercles. The muscular system itself is very 
rarely the seat of tubercular deposits, although the lymphatic glands 
lying near and among the muscles may be not infrequently diseased. 

(2) Whether tubercle bacilli are found in muscle juice independent 
of any tubercular deposits is a question which must be approached 
experimentally. There is on record a great variety of opinions on this 
matter, some authorities considering all flesh from tuberculous animals 
unlit for food, while others hold a contrary view. Experiments have 
shown that in rare cases the flesh of tuberculous cattle contains a small 
number of tubercle bacilli. In Germany the flesh of animals in which 
the disease is just beginning, or in which it is restricted to one or more 
related organs, is not rejected. When, however, the disease has 
affected the muscles, or bones, or lymphatic glands situated on or 
between them, the flesh is condemned as unfit and dangerous. Animals 
are also rejected in which it is evident, from the general distribution of 
tubercles throughout the various organs, that the bacilli have been 
distributed by the blood and may have been carried into the muscular 
system (generalized tuberculosis). 

Concerning the infectious nature of milk secreted by tuberculous 
cows, authorities have universally agreed that when the udder itself is 
in the slightest degree involved the milk possesses infectious proper- 
ties, and is therefore dangerous. Tubercle bacilli have been found in 
large numbers in the milk and the udder under such circumstances. 
Unlike other affections of the udder, tuberculosis of this organ does not 
at once change the appearance and the quality of the milk secreted. 
Bang states that for at least a month after the disease has appeared the 
milk is normal in appearance and may be consumed and sold without 
arousing the suspicion of the owner. There is, therefore, considerable 
danger involved in this disease, and the necessity for the careful inspec- 
tion of dairy cows seems more urgent than ever before. 

Authorities are, however, not fully agreed as to whether the milk 
from tuberculous cows in which the udder is apparently not invaded 
by the disease should be considered dangerous or not. Some are in- 
clined to believe that the milk secreted by healthy udders is never 
infectious even when the lungs or other organs are affected; that, 
in other words, the tubercle bacilli are rarely, if ever, separated from 
the lesions which they produce, and that the udder itself must be dis- 
eased before tubercle bacilli can appear in the milk. Experiments 
made with the milk of tuberculous cows in which there were no indica- 
tions of udder disease do not bear out this theory, since tubercle bacilli 
have been found in the milk of such cows. Some authorities, among 



408 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

them Nocard, still believe that the udder is diseased when the milk is 
infected, but that the disease escapes observation. However this may 
be, the fact that the udder may be diseased and the disease not recog- 
nizable, simply casts suspicion upon all milk from tuberculous animals. 
The question as it now stands leaves the matter unsettled. We know 
that the milk of tuberculous cattle may or may not contain tubercle 
bacilli when the udder is apparently free from disease. But we have 
no rapid method of determining whether in any given case the milk 
contains tubercle bacilli or not. Moreover, the bacilli may be absent 
at one time and present at another in milk from the same cow. When 
we consider, therefore, the extent of tuberculosis and the hidden char- 
acter of the disease, a certain amount of suspicion rests upon all milk. 
Fortunately tubercle bacilli are readily destroyed by the tenrperature 
of boiling water, and hence both meat and milk are made entirely safe, 
the former by the various processes of cooking, the latter by boiling 
for a few moments. Until better means of diagnosis are at hand it is 
incumbent upon all communities to have dairy cows examined or 
inspected at least to the extent of finding out whether the udder shows 
any signs of disease. If this is detected the affected animal should be 
at once killed, or else all opportunity for the sale of such milk removed 
by appropriate measures. The dangers from infected milk might by 
these means be very materially lessened. 

TUBERCULOSIS. 

[Description of plates.] 

Plate XXXIV. Tuberculosis of the lungs. The upper figures represent a large 
cheesy mass, surrounded hy a capsule of connective tissue, the whole embedded in 
healthy lung tissue. The lower figure illustrates in section a mass of tubercles 
which have undergone cheesy degeneration, and some of which are embedded in dense 
connective tissue. 

Plate XXXV. Tuberculosis of the liver. A large portion of the lobe represented 
in the plate has undergone tuberculous changes. The whitish, very fine, newly 
formed connective tissue contains the yellowish, partly cheesy, partly gritty masses 
characteristic of advanced tuberculous degeneration. This large mass projected 
above the surface of the liver. In the plate the diseased mass is shown cut through 
its central portion with the cut surface presented. 

Plate XXXVI. A lymph gland from the region of the thorax behind or above 
the oesophagus or gullet (posterior or dorsal mediastinum). The gland is shown cut 
through and laid open. It is very much enlarged, and the yellowish cheesy masses 
surrounded by dense connective tissue are well shown on the cut surface. 

Plate XXXVII. Eepresents the omentum or caul of a tuberculous cow. The 
preparation had been in alcohol for some time. The projecting masses are the 
tubercles, whence tbename "pearly disease," for that form of the malady in which 
these tubercles are present. They are mainly restricted to the lining membrane of 
the thorax and abdomen. 

Plate XXXVIII. Fig. 1. Lymphatic gland of the mesentery (the fold of mem- 
brane to which the small intestines are attached) cut open. The gland is very 
much enlarged. The yellowish portions represent tissue which has undergone 
tuberculous changes. 

Fig. 2. Omentum or caul resting upon the paunch. The reddish nodules with 
which the membrane is beset are tubercles, the product of the disease. Both speci- 
mens are from the same animal, a Jersey cow. 



PLATE XXXIV 




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The QrcuaCn.Litha. Chicago. 



TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LUNGS. 




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s ; 




u 

c 
P 



w 
pq 

H 



PLATE XXXVII 







TUBERCULOSIS OF THE OMENTUM ( CAUL). 



plate xxxvm 




Fig. 2 




i "jw ."¥ 




Iheflrcuil Co _":.."■' 



Haines, del. 



TUBERCULOSIS OF LYMPHATIC GLAND 
AJ\D OF OMENTUM (Gaul). 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 409 

ACTINOMYCOSIS. 
(Plates xxxix to xtij inclusive.) 

Actinomycosis, also known as lump-jaw, big-jaw, etc., is a local dis- 
ease due to the formation of peculiar tumors in various regions of the 
body, more particularly the head. In these tumors a certain fungus 
(actinomyces) is always present and regarded as the cause of the disease 
process. 

Although these tumors on cattle had been the object of study for 
many years, it was not until 1877 that the constant presence of actino- 
myces was pointed out by Bollinger, of Munich, and since that time 
considered the cause. This fungus had been observed in these tumors 
as early as 1863 by Eivolta, and by others subsequently, without having 
been suspected as causing them. 

Since Bollinger's publication a large amount of work has been done, 
many observations made, and many hitherto obscure disease proc- 
esses brought into relation with this fungus. Furthermore, a similar 
disease in man was first definitely shown to be associated with the same 
fungus in 1878 by Israel, and in the following year Ponfick pointed out 
that the disease described by Bollinger in animals and that found by Israel 
in man were due to the same cause ; that is, that the fungi described by 
these observers were one and the same. 

The tumors and abscesses wherever they may be situated are all found 
*o be the same in origin by the presence of the actinomyces fungus. 
When they are incised, a very close scrutiny with the naked eye, or at 
most a hand lens, will reveal the presence of minute grains which vary 
from a pale yellow to a sulphur-yellow color. They may be very abun- 
dant or so few as to be overlooked. They are embedded in the soft 
tissue composing the tumor or in the pus of the abscess. With a needle 
they are easily lifted out from the tissue and then they appear as roundish 
masses about one-half millimeter (^ inch) in diameter. To anyone 
familiar with the use of a microscope the recognition of these grains or 
particles without any previous preparation is a comparatively easy task. 

When examined in the fresh condition under a microscope magnify- 
ing up to 250 diameters the general structure is made out without 
much difficulty. These grains consist of collections of minute roundish 
masses. Their outer surface is made up of club-shaped bodies all radi- 
ating from the center of the mass (see Fig. 2 of Plate xxxix), somewhat 
like a rosette. If the fungus be crushed the interior is found made up 
of bundles of very fine filaments, which are probably continuous into 
the club-shaped bodies. The addition of a dilute solution of caustic 
soda or potash greatly aids the examination, since it removes the layer 
of cells adhering to the fungus which obscures the structure. Now 
and then these grains are found to be in a calcified condition. The 
exterior is incrusted in lime salts, which are dissolved by adding some 
weak dilute acid like acetic acid. Only by this procedure can the fun- 
gus be definitely recognized when in a mummified condition. 



410 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

These are the bodies whose presence causes sufficient irritation in 
the tissues into which they find their way to set up inflammatory 
growths. These growths increase as the fungus continues to multiply 
until they reach enormous dimensions, if the affected animal is per- 
mitted to live long enough. The true nature of this parasite is not yet 
definitely settled, although many excellent observers have occupied 
themselves with it. According to earlier observers it is a true fungus. 
Later ones are inclined to place it among the higher bacteria. Further 
investigations will be necessary to clear up this subject. Whatever 
be the situation of the disease caused by actinomyces, its nature is 
fundamentally the same and peculiar to the fungus. The pathological 
details which make this statement clear can not be entered upon in 
this place, nor would they be of auy practical value to the farmer. 
We will simply dwell upon a few obvious characters. 

The consistency of the tumor varies in different situations according 
to the quantity of fibrous or connective tissue present. When very 
little of this is present the tumor is of a very soft consistency. As the 
quantity of connective tissue is increased the tumor is firmer and uf a 
more honeycombed appearance. The individual actinomyces colonies 
are lodged in the spaces or interstices formed by the mesh work of the 
connective tissue. There they are surrounded by a mantle of cellular 
elements which fill up the spaces. By scraping the cut surface of such 
a tumor these cell masses inclosing the fungi come away, and the latter 
may be seen as pale or sulphur-yellow specks, as described above. 

Location of the disease. — In cattle the disease process may be located 
both externally, where it is readily detected, and in internal organs. Its 
preferred seat is on the bones of the lower and upper jaw, in the pa- 
rotid salivary gland in the angle of the jaw, and in the region of the 
throat. It may also appear under the skin in different parts of the 
body. Internally it may attack the tongue and appear in the form of a 
tumor in the mouth, pharynx, and larynx. It may cause extensive 
disease of the lungs, more rarely of the digestive tract. 

It appears, furthermore, that in certain districts or countries the dis- 
ease seems to attack by preference certain j>arts. Thus in England 
actinomycosis of the tongue is most prevalent. In Denmark the soft 
parts of the head are most prone to disease. In certain parts of Ger- 
many actinomycotic tumors of the throat (pharynx), in others disease 
of the jawbones is most frequently encountered. 

A description of actinomycosis of the jaw (lump-jaw) and of the 
tongue has already been given by Dr. Murray, and hence they will 
be dealt with here only very briefly. When the disease attacks the 
soft parts of the head a rather firm swelling appears in which are 
formed one or more smaller projecting tumors varying from the size 
of a nut to that of an egg. These push their way outward and finally 
break through the skin as small, reddish, fungus-like bodies covered 
with thin sloughs. Or the original swelling, in place of enlarging in 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 411 

the manner described, may become transformed into an abscess which 
finally bursts to discharge creamy pus. The abscess cavity, however, 
does not disappear, but is soon filled with fungus-like growths which 
force their way outward through the opening. 

When the tumors are situated within the cavity of the pharynx, they 
have broken through from some gland, perhaps beneath the mucous 
membrane, where the disease first appeared, and hang or project into 
the cavity of the pharynx, either as pendulous masses with a slender 
stem or as tumors with a broad base. Their position may be such as to 
interfere with swallowing and with breathing. In either case serious 
symptoms will soon appear. 

The invasion of the bones of the jaws by actinomycosis must be re- 
garded as one of the most serious forms of the disease. (Plates xxxix, 
Fig. 1, xli.) It may start in the marrow of the bone and by a slow ex- 
tension gradually undermine the entire thickness of the bone itself. The 
growth may continue outward, and after working its way through 
muscle and skin finally break through and appear externally as stink- 
ing fungoid growths. The growth may at the same time work its way 
inward and appear in the mouth. The disease may also begin in the 
periosteum or covering of the bone and destroy the bone from without 
inwards. 

Actinomycosis of the lungs is occasionally observed, and it is not 
improbable that it has been mistaken at times for tuberculosis. The 
actinomyces grains are, however, easily observed if the diseased tissue 
be carefully examined. The changes in the lungs as they appear to 
the naked eye vary considerably from case to case. Thus, in one animal 
the luugs were affected as in ordinary broncho-pneumonia as to the 
location, extent, and appearance of the disease process. The affected 
lobes had a dark -red flesh appearance, with yellowish areas sprinkled 
in here and there. (See Plate xl, Figs. 1, 2.) These latter areas were 
the seat of multiplication of the actinomyces fungus. In another case, 
of which only a small portion of the lungs was sent to the laboratory, 
these were completely transformed into a uniformly grayish mass, very 
soft aud pulpy to the touch, and appearing like very soft and moist 
dough. (Plate xl, Fig. 3.) The actinomyces grains were exceedingly 
abundant in this tissue, and appeared when the tissue was incised as 
minute sulphur-yellow grains, densely sprinkled through the tissue, 
which readily came away and adhered to the knife blade. In still 
another case, a portion of the lung tissue was converted into large 
soft masses from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, each partly inclosed in 
very dense connective tissue. These soft grayish-yellow masses like- 
wise resembled moist dough in their consistency, and the actinomyces 
grains, though neither very distinct nor at all abundant, were easily 
fished out and identified as such. A portion of this growth, which was 
as large as a child's head, was converted into an abscess filled with 
creamy semi-liquid pus. 



412 DISEASES OP CATTLE. 

This case differed from the preceding in that all appearance of lung 
tissue was gone from the diseased mass. Only on the exterior the lung 
tissue could be recognized, although even there it had been largely con- 
verted into very dense whitish connective tissue inclosing the fungoid 
growth. In the other case the external form of the lung and the shape 
and outline of the lobules were preserved, but the lung tissue itself was 
not recognizable as such. In the case first mentioned the changes were 
still less marked, and actinomycosis would not have been suspected by 
a simple inspection. These few illustrations suffice to show that actino- 
mycosis of the lungs may appear under quite different forms, and that 
the nature of the disease can be accurately determined only by finding 
the fungus itself. Rarely actinomycosis attacks the body externally in 
places other than the head and neck. Crookshank describes the case 
of a bull in which the flank was attacked and subsequently the scrotum 
became diseased. A large portion of the skin of the flank was destroyed 
and covered with a leathery crust. When this was pulled away the pus 
beneath it showed the actinomyces grains to the naked eye. 

Actinomycosis may in some cases be confounded with tuberculosis. 
The diagnosis does not offer any difficulties, since the presence of the 
actinomyces fungus at once removes any existing doubts. As has 
already been intimated, these grains are visible to the naked eye, and 
their nature is readily determined with the aid of a microscope. 

The course of the disease is quite slow. As the tumors grow they 
may interfere with the natural functions of the body. According to 
their situation, mastication, rumination, or breathing may be interfered 
with, and in this way the animal may become emaciated. Actinomy- 
cosis of the jawbones leads to destruction of the teeth and impedes the 
movements necessary to chewing the food. Similarly, when the disease 
attacks the soft parts of the head obstructions may arise in the mouth 
by an inward growth of the tumor. If tumors exist in the pharynx 
they may partially obstruct the movements necessary to breathing, or 
close the air -passages and cause partial suffocation. Actinomycosis of 
the tongue, in interfering with the many and varied movements of this 
important organ, is also a serious matter. There is no reason to sup- 
pose that the localized disease interferes with the general health in any 
other way than indirectly, until internal organs, such as the lungs, 
become involved. 

Prevention. — The question as to how and where animals take this 
disease is one concerning which we are still in the stage of conjecture, 
because we possess as yet very little information concerning the life 
history of the actinomyces itself. The quite unanimous view of all 
observers is that animals become infected with the food. The fungus 
is lodged upon the plants and in some way enters the tissues of the 
head, the lungs, and the digestive tract, where it sets up its peculiar 
activity. It is likewise quite generally believed that the fungus is, as 
it were, inoculated into the affected part. This inoculation is performed 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 413 

by the sharp and pointed parts of plants which penetrate the mucous 
membrane and carry with them the fungus. The disease is therefore 
inoculable rather than contagious. The mere presence of the diseased 
animal will not give rise to disease in healthy animals unless the acti- 
nomyces grains pass directly from the diseased into some wound or 
abrasion of the healthy, or else drop upon the food which is consumed 
by the healthy. Not only are these views deducible from clinical 
observation, but they have been proved by the positive inoculation of 
calves and smaller animals with actinomyces. The danger therefore 
of the presence of actinomyces for healthy animals is a limited one. 
Nevertheless an animal affected with this disease should not be allowed 
to go at large or run with other animals. If the fungus is being scat- 
tered by discharging growths we certainly can not state at this stage 
of our .knowledge that other animals may not be infected by such dis- 
tribution, and we must assume that this actually occurs until more 
positive information is at hand. 

It is, however, the opinion of the majority of authorities that when 
actinomycosis appears among a large number of animals they all con- 
tract it in the same way from the food. Much speculation has there- 
fore arisen whether any particular plant or group of plants is the source 
of the infection, and whether any special condition of the soil favors 
it. Yery little positive information is at hand on these questions. It 
would be very desirable for those who live in localities where this 
disease is prevalent to make statistical and other observations on the 
occurrence of the disease with reference to the season of the year, the 
kind of food, the nature of the soil (whether swampy or dry, recently 
reclaimed or cultivated for a long time) upon which the animals are 
pastured or upon which the food is grown. 

It is highly probable that such investigations will lead to an under- 
standing of the source of the fungus and the means for checking the 
spreading of the disease itself. Veterinarian Jensen, of Denmark, made 
some observations upon an extensive outbreak of actinomycosis, about 
ten years ago, which led him to infer that the animals were inoculated 
by eating barley straw harvested from pieces of ground just reclaimed 
from the sea. While the animals remained unaffected as long as they 
pastured on this ground, or ate the hay obtained from it, they became 
diseased after eating the straw of cereals from the same territory. 
Others have found that cattle grazing upon low pastures along the 
banks of streams and subject to inundations are more prone to the dis- 
ease. It has also been observed that food gathered from such grounds 
may give rise to the disease even after prolonged drying. Much addi- 
tional information of a similar kind must be forthcoming before the 
source and manner of infection in this disease and its dependence upon 
external conditions will be known. It is not at all improbable that 
these may vary considerably from place to place. 

Treatment — This has been until recently almost entirely surgical. 



414 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

When the tumors are external and attached to soft parts only, an early 
removal may lead to recovery. This, of course, can only be undertaken 
by a trained veterinarian, especially as the various parts of the head 
and neck contain important vessels, nerves, and ducts which should 
be injured as little as possible in any operation. Unless the tumor is 
completely removed it will reappear. Disease of the jawbones is at 
best a very serious matter, and treatment is likely to be of no avail. 

In March, 1892, an important contribution to our knowledge of this sub- 
ject was made by M. Hocard, of the Alfort Veterinary School, in a com- 
munication to the French Central Society of Veterinary Medicine. He 
showed clearly that the actinomycosis of the tongue, a disease which 
appears to be quite common in Germany, and is there known as "wooden- 
tongue," could be quickly and permanently cured by the administration 
of iodide of potassium. M. Nocard calls attention to the success of M. 
Thomassen, of Utrecht, who recommended this treatment as long ago 
as j 885, and Avho has since treated more than eighty cases, all of which 
have been cured. A French veterinarian, M. Godbille, has treated a 
number of cases of actinomycosis in the tongue with the same remedy, 
all of which have been cured. M. Noeard also gives details of a case 
which was cured by himself. 

All of the cases referred to were of actinomycosis of the tongue, and 
no one appears to have attempted the cure of actinomycosis of the jaw 
until this was undertaken by Dr. Kbrgaard, veterinary inspector of the 
Bureau of Animal Industry. He selected a young steer in April, 1892, 
in fair condition, which had a tumor on the jaw, measuring 15£ inches 
in circumference, and from which a discharge had already been estab- 
lished. This animal was treated with iodide of potassium, and the 
result was a complete cure. 

The treatment with iodide of potassium consists in giving full doses 
of this medicine once or twice a day until improvement is noticed, when 
the dose may be reduced or given less frequently. The size of the dose 
should depend somewhat upon the weight of the animal. M. Thomassen 
gives one and one-half drams of iodide of potassium daily in one dose, 
dissolved in a pint of water until improvement is noticed, which he 
states is always within eight days. Then he decreases the dose to one 
dram. The animals do well under this treatment, showing only the 
ordinary symptoms which follow the use of iodine, the principal ones 
being discharged from the nose, weeping of the eyes, and peeling off of 
tihe outer layer of the skin. These symptoms need cause no uneasiness, 
as they never result in any serious disturbance of the health. 

M. Godbille has given as much as four drams (half an ounce) in one 
day to a steer, decreasing the dose half a dram each day until the dose 
was one and one-fourth drams, which was maintained until the twelfth 
day of treatment, when the steer appeared entirely cured. 

M. ISTocard gave the first day one and one-half drams in one dose to 
a cow j the second and succeeding days a dose of one dram in the morn- 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 415 

ing and evening, in each ease before feeding. This treatment was con- 
tinued for ten days, when the animal was cured. 

Dr. ISTorgaard gave two and one-half drams dissolved in water once 
a day for three days. He then omitted the medicine for a day or two, 
and continued it according to symptoms. These examples of the treat- 
ment as it has been successfully administered by others will serve as a 
sufficient indication for those who wish to test it. 

Actinomycosis and the public health, — The interest which has been 
aroused concerning this cattle disease is largely due to the fact that 
the same disease attacks human beings. Its slow progress, its tend- 
ency to remain restricted to certain localities, and the absence of any 
directly contagious properties, have thus far not aroused any anxiety 
in other countries as to its influence on the cattle industry, not even to 
the point of placing it among the infectious diseases of which statistics 
are annually published. Its possible bearing on public health has, 
however, given this disease a place in the public mind which it hardly 
deserves. 

It has already been stated that the actinomyces fungus found in hu- 
man disease is considered by authorities the same as that occurring in 
bovine affections. It is therefore of interest to conclude this article 
with a brief discussion of the disease in man and its relation to acti- 
nomycosis in cattle. 

In man the location of the disease process corresponds fairly well with 
that in cattle. The majority of cases which have been reported in dif- 
ferent parts of the world, and they are now quite numerous, indicate 
disease of the face. The skin or the jawbones may become affected, 
and by a very slow process it may extend downward upon the neck an d 
even into the cavity of the chest. In many cases the teeth have been 
found in a state of more or less advanced decay and ulceration. In a 
few cases disease of the lungs was observed without coexisting disease 
of the bones or soft parts of the head. In such cases the fungus must 
have been inhaled. The disease of the lungs after a time extends upon 
the chest wall. Here it may corrode the ribs and work its way through 
the muscles and the skin. An abscess is thus formed discharging pus 
containing actinomyces grains. Disease of the digestive organs caused 
by this fungus has also been observed in a few instances. 

Granting the identity of the disease in man and cattle, the question 
has been raised whether cattle are responsible for the disease in man. 
Any transmission of the infectious agent may be conceived of as taking 
place during the life of the animal and after slaughter from the meat. 
That human beings have contracted actinomyces by coming in contact 
With diseased cattle is not shown by the cases that have hitherto been 
reported, for the occupations of most of the patients did not bring them 
into any relation whatever with cattle. While the possibility of such 
direct transmission is not denied, therefore, it must be considered ex- 



416 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

tremely rare. Practically the same position is maintained at present 
by most authorities as regards the transmission of the disease to man 
by eating meat. Israel, who has studied this question carefully, found 
the disease in Jews who never ate pork* and who likewise were protected 
by the rigorous meat inspection i^racticed by their sect from bovine acti- 
nomycosis. Furthermore it must be borne in mind that actinomycosis is 
a local disease causing great destruction of tissue where the fungus mul- 
tiplies, but very rarely becoming generally disseminated over the body 
from the original disease focus. The fungus is only found in places 
where the disease process is manifest to the eye or becomes so in a very 
short time after the lodgment of the fungus. Only the greatest negli- 
gence would allow the actually diseased parts to be sold and consumed. 
Finally this parasite, like all others, would be destroyed in the process 
of cooking. The majority of authorities thus do not believe that actino- 
mycosis in man is directly traceable to the disease in animals, but are of 
the opinion that both man and animals are infected from a third source. 
This source has already been discussed above. How far these views 
may be modified by further and more telling investigations of the par- 
asitic fungus itself no one can predict. There are still wide gaps in our 
knowledge, and the above presentation simply summarizes the prevail- 

ACTINOMYCOSIS. 

[Description of plates.] 

Plate XXXIX. Fig. 1. Actinomycosis of the jaw. The lower jawbone has been 
extensively eaten away by the disease. Fig. 2. Actinomyces fungus from a tumor 
of the jawbone in cattle, magnified 550 times. Both figures are taken from Johne 
(Eucyklopadie d. ges. Thierheilkunde). 

Plate XL. Actinomycosis of the lungs, Fig. 1. Transverse section of the ventral 
lobe of the right lung from a case studied in the laboratory. The yellowish dots 
represent the places where the actinomyces fungus is lodged. The larger yellowish 
patches are produced by the confluence of a number of isolated centers. The entire 
lobe is of a dark flesh-red color due to collapse and broncho-pneumonia. Fig. 2. The 
cut surface of a portion of the principal lobe of the same lung, showing the recent 
invasion of antinomycosis from the other lobe: a, Large air tube; 6, artery; c, a 
pneumonic lobule; d, lobule containing minute yellowish dots. In these the actino- 
myces fungus is lodged. Fig. 3. Cut surface of a small portion of another lung, 
showing a few lobules a. The fungus is sprinkled throughout the lung tissue in the 
form of yellowish grains, as shown in the illustration. The pleural covering of the 
lung tissue is shown in profile above. 

Plate XLI. Actinomycosis of the jaw (lumpy -jaw, etc.), reduced one-half. 
(From Johne, in Encyklopadie d. gesammt. Thierheilkunde.) The lower jaw is 
sawn through transversely, i. e., from right to left, and shows the disease withiu the 
jawbone itself; a, within the mouth, showing the papillae on the mucous membrane 
of the cheek ; b, front view of a molar tooth ; c, the skin covering the lower surfaec 
of the jawbone; d, the jawbone hollowed out and enlarged by the foiination of 
cavities within it, which are filled with the soft growth of the actinomycotic tumor. 
The section makes it appear as if the bone were broken into fragments and these 
forced apart; e, a portion of the tumor which has broken through the bone and the 
skin and appears as a tumor on the cheek. The little roundish masses represent the 
granulomata (minute tumors) in which the fungus vegetates. 

*Swine are subject to actinomycosis. 





\> 




PLATE XL11 












d 



c 



ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE JAW. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 417 

ing views to which there are of course dissenters. An attempt to give 
the views of both sides on this question would necessitate the sunima- 
rizing and impartial discussion of all the experiments thus far made — 
a task entirely beyond the scope of the present work. 

Whether an animal affected with actinomycosis should be used for 
human food after all diseased organs and tissues have been thoroughly 
removed is a question the answer of which depends on a variety of 
circumstances. Among these may be mentioned the thoroughness of 
the meat inspection itself, which allows no really diseased animal to 
pass muster, the extent of the disease, and the general condition of the 
animal affected. If the vital organs have become involved, or if the 
disease has become generalized, the condition of the animal will show 
it. Animals seriously diseased and in which the general condition is 
affected should in all cases be condemned. Hard and fast lines it 
Avould be impossible to draw in this as in some other diseases, and it 
must be left to the skill of the inspector, reinforced by the knowledge 
and practice of the entire civilized world and the advances constantly 
made in our interpretation of disease, to settle the fitness or unfitness 
of each case as it comes up. 

ANTHRAX. 

Anthrax or charbon may be defined as an infectious disease which is 
caused by specific bacteria, known as anthrax bacilli, and which is 
more or less restricted by conditions of soil and moisture to definite 
geographical localities. While it is chiefly limited to cattle and sheep 
it may be transmitted to goats, horses, and certain kinds of game. 
Smaller animals, such as mice, rabbits, and guinea-pigs speedily succumb 
to inoculation. Dogs and swine are nearly insusceptible. The variety 
of domesticated animals which it may attack renders it one of the most 
dreaded scourges of animal life. It may even attack man. Of this 
more will be stated farther on. 

The cause of anthrax is a microscopic organism known as the anthrax 
bacillus. (See Plate xxix, Fig. 7.) In form it is cylindrical or rod-like, 
measuring -=wo o to asVo inch in length and ^o inch in diameter. Like 
all bacteria these rod-like bodies have the power of indefinite multipli- 
cation, and in the body of infected animals they produce death by rap- 
idly increasing in numbers and producing substances which poison the 
body. In the blood they multiply in number by becoming elongated and 
then dividing into two, each new organism continuing the same process 
indefinitely. Outside of the body, however, they multiply in a different 
way when under conditions unfavorable to growth. Oval bodies ap- 
pear within the rods which are called spores, and which remain alive 
and capable of germination after years of drying. They also resist 
heat to a remarkable degree, so that boiling water is necessary to de- 
stroy them. The bacilli themselves, on the other hand, show only very 
24697 27 



418 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

little resistance to heat and drying. It has long been known that the 
anthrax virus thrives best under certain conditions of the soil and on 
territories subject to floods and inundations. The particular kinds of 
soil upon which the disease is observed are black, loose, warm, humus-. 
soils, also those containing lime, marl, and clay, finally peaty, swampy- 
soils resting upon strata which hold the water, or, in other words, are- 
impervious. Hence fields containing stagnant pools may be the source- 
of infection. The infection may be limited to certain farms, or even to 
restricted areas on such farms. Even in the Alps, over 3,000 feet above-, 
sea level, where such conditions prevail in secluded valleys anthrax per- 
sists among herds. 

Aside from these limitations to specific conditions of the soil, anthrax 
is a disease of world-wide distribution. It exists in most countries of 
Europe, in Asia, Africa, Australia, and in our own country in the Lower- 
Mississippi Valley and perhaps elsewhere. 

Meteorological conditions have also an important share in determin- 
ing the severity of the disease. On those tracts subject to inundations 
in spring, a very hot, dry summer is apt to cause a severe outbreak. 
The relation which the bacillus bears to these conditions is not posi- 
tively known. It may be that during and immediately after inunda- 
tions or in stagnant water the bacilli find enough nourishment in the 
water here and there to multiply and produce an abundant crop of 
spores, which are subsequently carried, in a dry condition, by the winds, 
during the period of drought and disseminated over the vegetation. 
Animals feeding upon this vegetation may contract the disease if the 
spores germinate in the body. 

Another source of the virus, and one regarded by many authorities as 
perhaps the most important, are the bodies of animals which have died 
of anthrax. It will be remembered that in such bodies the anthrax 
bacilli are present in enormous numbers, and wherever blood or other 
body fluids are exposed to the air on the surface of the carcass there 
the formation of spores will go on in the warm season of the year with 
great rapidity. It will thus be readily understood how this disease may 
become stationary in a given locality and appear year after year and 
even grow in severity if the carcasses of animals which have succumbed 
to it are not properly disposed of. These should be buried deeply, so 
that spore formation may be prevented and no animal have access to 
them. By exercising this precaution the disease will not be dissemi- 
nated by flies and other insect pests. 

We have thus two agents at work in maintaining the disease in any 
locality, the soil and meteorological conditions and the carcasses of 
animals that have died of the disease. Besides these dangers, which are 
of immediate consequence to cattle on x^astures, the virus may be car- 
ried from place to place in hides, and it may be stored in the hay or 
other fodder from the infected fields and cause an -outbreak among 
stabled animals feeding upon it in winter, 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 419 

How cattle are infected. — We have seen above that the spores of the 
anthrax bacilli, which correspond in their functions to the seeds of higher 
plants, and which are the elements that resist the unfavorable conditions 
in the soil, air, and water longest, are the chief agents of infection. They 
may be taken into the body with the food and produce disease which 
begins in the intestinal tract; or they may come in contact with 
scratches, bites, or other wounds of the skin, the mouth, and tongue, 
and produce in these situations swellings or carbuncles. From such 
swellings the bacilli penetrate into the blood and produce a general 
disease. 

It has likewise been claimed that the disease may be transmitted by 
various kinds of insects which carry the bacilli from the sick and inoc- 
ulate the healthy as they pierce the skin. When infection of the blood 
takes place from the intestines the carbuncles may be absent. It has 
already been stated that since the anthrax spores live for several years 
the disease may be contracted in winter from food gathered on per- 
manently infected fields. 

The disease may appear sporadically, i. <?., only one or several ani- 
mals may be infected while the rest of the herd remain well, or it may 
appear as an epizootic attacking a large number at about the same 
time. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms in cattle vary considerably, according as 
the disease begins in the skin, in the lungs or in the intestines. They 
depend also on the severity of the attack. Thus we may have what is 
called anthrax peracutus or apoplectiform, when the animal dies very 
suddenly as if from apoplexy. Such cases usually occur in the begin- 
ning of an outbreak. The animal, without having shown any signs 
of disease, suddenly drops down in the pasture and dies in convulsions, 
or an animal apparently well at night is found dead in the morning. 

The second type — anthrax acutus — without any external swellings is 
the one most commonly observed in cattle. The disease begins with a 
high fever. The temperature may reach 106° to 107° F. The pulse beats 
from 80 to 100 per minute. Feeding and rumination are suspended. 
Chills and muscular tremors may appear and the skin show uneven 
temperature. The ears and base of the horns are cold, the coat star- 
ing. The animals are dull and stupid and manifest great weakness. 

To these symptoms others are added in the course of the disease. 
The dullness may give way to great uneasiness, champing of the jaws, 
spasms of the limbs, kicking and pawing the ground. The breathing 
may become labored. The nostrils then dilate, the mouth is open, the 
head raised and all muscles of the chest are strained during breathing 
while the visible mucuous membranes (nose, mouth, rectum and vagina) 
become bluish. If the disease has started in the bowels there is much 
pain, as shown by the moaning of the animal; the discharges at first 
firm become softer and covered with serum, mucus and blood. 

As the disease approaches the fatal termination the weakness of the 



420 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

animal increases. It leans against supports or lies down. Blood-ves- 
sels may rupture and give rise to spots of blood on the various mucous 
membranes and bloody discbarges from nose, mouth, rectum and vagina. 
The urine not unfrequently contains blood (red-water). Death ensues 
within one or two days. 

A third type of the disease — anthrax subacutus — includes those cases 
in which the disease is more prolonged. It may last from three to seven 
days and terminate fatally or end in recovery. In this type, which is 
rarely observed, the symptoms are practically as described in the acute 
form, only less marked. 

In connection with these types of intestinal anthrax swellings may 
appear under the skin in different parts of the body, or the disease may 
start from such a swelling, caused by the inoculation of anthrax spores 
in one of the several different ways already described. If the disease 
begins in the skin it agrees in general with the subacute form in pro- 
longed duration, and it may occasionally terminate in recovery if the 
swellings are thoroughly incised and treated. 

These swellings appear as cedenms and carbuncles. The former are 
doughy tumors of a more or less flatfish form passing gradually into 
the surrounding healthy tissue. They are situated as a rule beneath 
the skin in the fatty layer, and the skin itself is at first of healthy 
appearance, so that they are often overlooked, especially when covered 
with a good coat of hair. When they are cut open they are found to 
consist of a peculiar jelly-like mass of a yellowish color and more or less 
stained by blood. The carbuncles are firm, hot, tender swellings which 
later become cool and painless and undergo mortification. The cedemas 
and carbuncles may also appear in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, in the 
tongue and in the rectum. 

The bodies of cattle which have died of anthrax soon lose their 
rigidity and become bloated, because decomposition sets in very rapidly. 
From the mouth, nose, and anus blood-stained fluid Aoavs in small 
quantities. When such carcasses are opened and examined it will be 
found that nearly all organs are sprinkled with spots of blood or extrav- 
asations of various sizes. The spleen is enlarged from two to five 
times, the pulp blackish and soft and occasionally disintegrated. The 
blood is of tarry consistency, not firmly coagulated, and blackish in 
color. In the abdomen, the thoracic cavity, and in the pericardium or 
bag surrounding the heart more or less blood-stained fluid is present. 
In addition to these characteristic signs the carbuncles and swellings 
under the skin already described will aid in determining the true 
nature of the disease. The most reliable method of diagnosis is the 
examination of the blood and tissues for anthrax bacilli. This requires 
a trained bacteriologist. 

Treatment. — This is as a rule ineffectual and useless, excepting per- 
haps in cases which originate from external wounds. The swellings 
should be opened freely by long incisions with a sharp knife and 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 421 

washed daily several times with carbolic acid solution (one ounce to a 
quart of water). When suppuration has set in, the treatment recom- 
mended in the chapter on wounds should be carried out. 

Prevention. — Since treatment is of little or no avail in this disease, 
prevention is the most important subject demanding consideration. 
The various means to be suggested may be brought under two heads : 
(1) The surroundings of the animal ; and (2) protective inoculation. 

(1) What has already been stated in the foregoing pages on those 
conditions of the pastures which are favorable to anthrax will suggest 
to most minds after a little thought some of the preventive measures 
which may be of service in reducing losses in anthrax localities. All 
that conduces to a better state of the soil should be attempted. The 
state or nation should do its share in preventing frequent inundations, 
by appropriate engineering. If pools of stagnant water exist on the 
pastures, or if any particular portions are known by experience to give 
rise to anthrax, they should be fenced off. Efforts should likewise be 
made towards the proper draining of swampy lands frequented by cat- 
tle. Sometimes it has been found desirable to abandon for a season 
any infected and dangerous pastures. This remedy can not be carried 
out by most farmers, and it is liable to extend the infected territory. 
In some instances withdrawal of cattle from pastures entirely and feed- 
ing them in stables is said to have reduced the losses. 

It is of the utmost importance that carcasses of animals which have 
died of anthrax should be properly disposed of, since every portion of 
such animal contains the bacilli ready to form spores when exposed to 
the air. Perhaps the simplest means is to bury the carcasses deep, 
where they can not be exposed by dogs or wild animals. It may be 
necessary to bury them on the pasture, but it is better to remove them 
to places not frequented by susceptible animals. If they are moved 
some distance it must be borne in mind that the ground and all objects 
which have come in contact with the carcass should be disinfected. 
This is best accomplished with chloride of lime. For washing utensils, 
etc., a 5 per cent solution may be prepared by adding 3 ounces to 2 
quarts of water. This should be prepared fresh from the powder, and it 
is but little trouble to have a small tin measure of known capacity to 
dip out the powder to be added to the water whenever necessary. The 
carcass and the ground should be sprinkled with powdered chloride, or 
if this be not at hand, an abundance of ordinary slaked or unslaked 
lime should be used in its place. 

The removal of carcasses to rendering establishments is always 
fraught with danger, unless those who handle them are thoroughly 
aware of the danger of scattering the virus by careless handling in 
wagons which are not tight. As a rule, the persons in charge of such 
transfer have no training for this important work, so that deep burial 
is to be preferred. Burning large carcasses is rarely feasible. It is, 
however, the most certain means of destroying infectious material of 



422 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

any kind, and should be resorted to whenever practicable. When sta- 
bles have become infected they should be thoroughly cleaned out, and 
the solution of chloride of lime freely applied on floors and woodwork. 
The feed should be carefully protected from contamination with the 
manure or other discharges from the sick. 

Protective inoculation was first introduced by Louis Pasteur about 
ten years ago, and has been quite extensively practiced in France and to 
some extent in other European countries. The fluid used for inocula- 
tion consists of bouillon in which modified anthrax bacilli have multi- 
plied and are present in large numbers. The bacilli have been modified 
by heat so that they have lost to a certain degree their original virulence. 
Two vaccines have been prepared. The first or weakest for the first 
inoculation, and the second or stronger for a second inoculation some 
twelve days later. 

These vaccines have been used for cattle and sheep. Their power to 
prevent an attack of anthrax subsequently has been the subject of con- 
troversy ever since their use began. The French claim that the vac- 
cines are successful in protecting cattle and sheep and that the losses 
from anthrax in France have been much reduced by their persistent 
application. According to other observers there are several difficulties 
inherent in the practical application of anthrax vaccination. Among 
these may be mentioned the variable degree of attenuation of different 
tubes of the vaccine and the varying susceptibility of the animals to be 
inoculated. It would be impossible at present to decide from pub- 
lished statistics as to the relative value of these anthrax inoculations 
iu preventing losses. While some authorities regard the vaccination of 
sheep of little use because of the losses directly due to the vaccination, 
they admit that vaccination of cattle is accompanied by fewer losses, 
and that it seems to be protective and of use in localities where the dis- 
ease regularly appears every year, and is, so to speak, bound to the soil. 

It is very important to call attention to the possibility of distributing 
anthrax by this method of protective inoculation, since the bacilli them- 
selves are present in the culture liquid. It is true that they have been 
modified and weakened by the process adopted by Pasteur, but it is not 
impossible that such modified virus may regain its original virulence 
after it has been scattered broadcast by the inoculation of large herds. 
No vaccination should therefore be permitted in localities free from 
anthrax. 

ANTHRAX IN MAN — (MALIGNANT PUSTULE, OR CARBUNCLE.) 

Anthrax may be transmitted to man in handling the carcasses and 
hides of animals which have succumbed to the disease. The infection 
usually takes place through some abrasion or slight wound of the skin 
into which the anthrax spores or bacilli find their way. The point of 
inoculation appears at first as a dark point or patch, compared by some 
writers to the sting of a flea. After a few hours this is changed into a 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 42$ 

reddened pimple which bears on its summit, usually around a hair, a 
yellowish blister or vesicle which later on becomes red or bluish in color. 
The burning sensation in this stage is very great. Later on, this pimple 
enlarges, its center becomes dry, gangrenous, and is surrounded by an 
elevated discolored swelling. The center becomes drier and more 
leather-like, and sinks in as the whole increases in size. The skin 
around this swelling, or carbuncle, is stained yellow or bluish, and is 
not infrequently swollen and doughy to the touch. The carbuncle 
itself rarely grows larger than a pea or a small nut, and is but slightly 
painful. 

Anthrax swellings, or cedemas, already described as occurring in cat- 
tle, may also be found in man, and they are at times so extensive as to 
produce distortion in the appearance of the part of the body on which 
they are located. The color of the skin over these swellings varies 
according to the situation and thickness of the skin and the stage of 
the disease, and may be white, red, bluish, and blackish. 

As these carbuncles and swellings may lead, sooner or later, to an in- 
fection of the entire body and thus be fatal, surgical assistance should 
at once be called if there is well-grounded suspicion that any swellings 
resembling those described above have been due to inoculation with 
anthrax virus. Inasmuch as physicians differ as to treatment of such 
accidents in man, it would be out of place to make any suggestions in 
this connection. 

To show that the transmission of anthrax to man is not so very 
uncommon we take the following figures from the last report of the 
German Government (1890). One hundred and eleven cases were brought 
to the notice of the authorities, of which eleven terminated fatally. The 
largestnumber of inoculations were due to the slaughtering, opening, and 
skinning of animals affected with anthrax. Hence the butchers suffered 
most extensively. Of the one hundred and eleven, thirty-six belonged 
to this craft. 

In addition to anthrax of the skin (known as malignant pustule), 
human beings are subject, though very rarely, to the disease of the 
lungs and the digestive organs. In the former case the spores are 
inhaled by workmen in establishments in which wool, hides, and rags 
are worked over. In the latter case the disease is contracted by eat- 
ing the flesh of diseased animals which has not been thoroughly cooked. 
These forms of the disease are more fatal than those in which the disease 
starts from the skin. 

BLACK-QUARTER. 

Black-quarter, black-leg, cliarbon symptomatique of the French, 
Bauschbrand of the Germans, is a rapidly fatal infectious disease of 
young cattle, associated with external swellings which emit a crackling 
sound when handled. This disease was formerly regarded identical 
with anthrax, but the investigations of the past ten or fifteen years 



424 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

have definitely proved that it is a specific disease produced by bacilli, 
readily distinguishable from anthrax bacilli. (Plate xxix, Fig. 4.) 
Cattle between 6 months and 4 years of age are the most susceptible. 
Sucking calves under 6 months are not attacked, nor are they as sus- 
ceptible to inoculation as older animals. 

Like anthrax, black-quarter is more or less restricted to definite 
localities. There are certain pastures upon which the disease regularly 
appears in the summer and fall of the year. As to any peculiarities of 
the soil nothing is definitely known. Some authors are inclined to 
regard moist, undrained, and swampy pastures favorable to this disease. 
It occurs in different parts of our own country. In Europe it exists in 
France, various parts of Germany, in Belgium, Italy, in the Alps, and 
in Algeria. 

The cause of the disease is a bacillus resembling in some respects 
the anthrax bacillus, and differing but little from it in size. It also 
possesses the power of forming within itself a spore. In Plate xxix, 
Fig. 4, this is represented as an uncolored spot located in one end of 
the rod, which is enlarged so that the rod itself appears more or less 
club-shaped. What has already been stated concerning the significance 
of the spore of the anthrax bacillus applies equally well to these 
bodies. They resist destructive agents for a considerable length of 
time, and may still produce disease when inoculated after several years 
of drying. This fact may account for the occasional appearance of 
black-quarter in stables. The dry spores are carried in the hay or other 
feed from the field, and cause disease when eaten by the susceptible 
animals. Several observers have found this organism in the mud of 
swamps. By rdacing a little of this mud under the skin the disease 
has been called forth. 

Since the disease may be produced by placing under the skin mate- 
rial containing the specific bacilli and spores, it has been assumed that 
cattle contract the disease mainly through wounds, either of the skin 
or of the mouth, tongue, and throat. Slight wounds into which the 
virus may find access may be caused by sharp or x>ointed parts of the 
food. 

The symptoms of black-quarter are both of a general and a local 
nature. The general symptoms are very much like those belonging to 
other acute infectious or bacterial diseases. They begin from one to 
three days after the infection has taken place, with loss of appetite and 
of rumination, with dullness and debility and a high fever. The tem- 
perature may rise to 107° F. To these maybe added lameness or stiff- 
ness of one or more limbs, due to the tumor or swelling quite invariably 
accompanying the disease. After a period of disease lasting from one 
and a half to three days the affected animal almost always succumbs. 
Death is preceded by increasing weakness, difficult breathing, and 
occasional attacks of colic. 

The most important characteristic of this disease is the appearance 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 425 

of a tumor or swelling under the skin of the affected animal a few hours 
after the setting in of the constitutional symptoms described above. 
In some cases it may appear first. This tumor may be located on the 
thighs (hence "black-leg," "black- quarter"), the neck, the shoulder, 
the breast, the flanks, or the rump; never below the carpal (or knee) 
and the hock joint. It more rarely appears in the throat and at the 
base of the tongue. The tumor, at first small and painful, spreads very 
rapidly both in depth and extent. When it is stroked or handled a 
peculiar crackling sound is heard under the skin. This is due to a col- 
lection of gas formed by the bacilli as they multiply. At this stage the 
skin becomes dry, parchment-like, and cool to the touch in the center of 
the tumor. If the swelling is cut into, a frothy, dark red, rather disa- 
greebly smelling fluid is discharged. The animal manifests little or no 
pain during the operation. 

As it is frequently desirable to know whether the disease is anthrax 
or black- quarter, a few of the most obvious post-mortem changes may 
here be cited. The characteristic tumor with its crackling sound when 
stroked has already been described. If, after the death of the animal, 
it be more thoroughly examined, it will be noted that the tissue under 
the skin is infiltrated with blood and yellowish, jelly-like material and 
gas bubbles. The muscular tissue beneath the swelling maybe brown- 
ish or black, shading into dark red and dark yellow. It is soft and 
easily torn and broken up. In the abdomen and the thorax blood- 
stained fluid is not infrequently found, together with blood- staining of 
the lining membrane of these cavities. Blood spots (or ecchymoses) 
are also found on the heart and lungs. 

Among the features of this disease which distinguish it from anthrax 
may be mentioned the unchanged spleen and the ready clotting of the 
blood. It will be remembered that in anthrax the spleen (milt) is very 
much enlarged, the blood tarry, coagulating feebly. The anthrax car- 
buncles and swellings differ from the black quarter swellings in not con- 
taining gas and in causing death less rapidly. Other means of diag- 
nosis, which have reference to the specific bacilli, to the inoculable 
character of the virus upon small animals, and which are of decisive 
and final importance, can be utilized only by the trained bacteriologist 
and veterinarian. 

Treatment. — In this disease remedies have thus far proved unavail- 
ing. Some writers recommend that the swelling be opened by deep 
and long incisions and a strong disinfectant applied to the exposed 
parts. For such application a strong carbolic-acid solution (1 ounce 
carbolic acid to a pint of water) is perhaps the most easily obtained. 
Others recommend that if the tumor appears low down on a limb a 
cord be tied around the limb just above the tumor and the latter opened 
and treated as stated above. Since nearly all those attacked die, there 
is no harm in trying these rather heroic suggestions. 

Prevention. — The various means suggested under anthrax to prevent 



426 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

the spread or recurrence of tins disease are equally applicable to black- 
quarter, and hence do not need to be repeated here. Furthermore, there 
is practically no danger of a transmission of this disease from one 
animal to another, since it is contracted on the pastures from the ground 
and in stables from the food. 

Before closing this brief account of the disease it may be interest- 
ing to mention the efforts which have been made in the direction of 
preventive inoculation. Three French veterinarians, Arloing, Corne- 
vin, and Thomas, have devised a method of inoculation which produces 
immunity from subsequent attacks. The method has undergone various 
modifications in their hands, and at present consists in an inoculation 
of weakened virus beneath the skin of the tail. The virus is prepared 
as follows : 

The muscular tissue from the site of the swelling is dried rapidly 
and then mixed with two parts of water. The mixture is allowed to 
dry in ovens raised to a certain temperature. Two vaccines are pre- 
pared, a first or weaker vaccine which has been exposed to a dry heat 
of 212° F. for six hours, and a second or stronger vaccine exposed to 
the lower temperature of 185° F. for the same length of time. Of each 
of these dried vaccines a small quantity is ground up with water and 
injected under the skin of the tail. The second vaccine is injected ten 
days after the first. Those who have tried this method regard it as 
safe and valuable in those districts where the disease annually recurs. 

MALIGNANT CATARRH. 

Malignant catarrh or infectious catarrhal fever may be defined as an 
acute infectious disease of cattle, in which the respiratory and the diges- 
tive organs are involved in the disease. The cause of this affection has 
not as yet been determined, although the general belief among author- 
ities is that it is a disease due to microorganisms, perhaps belonging 
to the bacteria. It is not, strictly speaking, a contagious disease, like 
rinderpest or foot-and-mouth disease, for example, and hence it does not 
appear in extensive outbreaks like these, but chiefly in isolated or con- 
secutive cases. The predisposing causes are but little known, and vari- 
ous theories have been offered to explain observed facts. One author 
claims that the infection may arise in stables not kept well cleaned and 
dry. That it may recur year after year on the same farm or in the same 
locality has been frequently noticed by veterinarians in Europe. Noth- 
ing positive is known whether the conditions of the soil have any bear- 
ing on this disease, as they undoubtedly have in anthrax, for instance, 
for it seems to exist both in valleys and in elevated regions. Fortu- 
nately it is not a disease which spreads to any great extent, or which 
causes severe losses, and hence legislative enactments do not seem to 
be necessary for its restriction. 

Symptoms. — Malignant catarrh attacks by preference young and well- 
nourished animals in the spring of the year. According to authorities 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 427 

a period of incubation of three to four weeks follows the infection before 
outward signs of disease appear. These vary very markedly from case 
to case, and observers differ more or less in their accounts of the disease 
as they have found it. It usually begins with a chill, followed by high 
fever (104° to 107° F). The head droops, the skin is hot and dry, and the 
coat staring. Quivering of the muscles in various parts of the body is 
frequently observed. Marked dullness passing, according to some 
observers, into an almost stupefied condition later on, is quite common. 
The secretion of milk stops in the beginning of the disease. 

Affections of the eyes are characteristic of this malady. There is an 
abundant formation of tears, which run down over the face. The lids 
are swollen and inflamed, aud the animal shuns the light by keeping 
them closed. This simple inflammation may be followed by an inflam- 
mation of the cornea, which may lead to permanent clouding. Inflam- 
mation of deeper parts of the eyes (iris) is occasionally seen. 

Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth, nose, and the 
sinuses of the head leads to discharges from the nose and mouth. The 
mucous membrane of the nose is reddened, and may be covered later on 
with inflammatory deposits. The discharge is at first watery, then 
thicker, and occasionally streaked with blood and foul smelling. The 
inflammation of the mouth is like this and leads to much dribbling of 
saliva. It may extend to the nasal pad and to the nose. Inflamma- 
tion of the throat, with deposits of a croupous or diphtheritic character, 
leads to difficult breathing. Various noises are produced as the air 
passes in and out, depending on the place where its passage is partly 
obstructed by mucus and exudation. If the obstruction is great signs 
of suffocation may appear. According to some observers the horns 
become loosened by inflammation and may be knocked off easily by the 
uneasy, blinded animal. 

The bowels are at first constipated; later, diarrhea sets in and the dis- 
charges become soft, offensive, and streaked with blood. Some authors 
mention the discharge of exudation in the form of membranous patches, 
which have been observed to be 6 to 9 feet long. The kidneys are usu- 
ally inflamed, the urine is passed with difficulty and pain, and contains 
abnormal elements (albumen, casts, etc.), indicative of disease. The 
vaginal mucous membrane may be affected in a manner similar to that 
of the mouth and nose, and occasionally abortion follows. 

In connection with these various symptoms there may be much un- 
easiness on the part of the animal, leading in some cases to madness and 
furious delirum, in others to spasms and convulsions or paralysis. Eapid 
emaciation is quite invariably associated with the disease in all its 
grades. 

Like other infectious diseases, malignant catarrh pursues a longer or 
shorter course in accordance with the severity of the attack. In acute 
cases death is said to take place from three to seven days after the ap- 
pearance of symptoms. When recovery ensues it may take three or 



428 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

four weeks. According to statistics, from 50 to 90 per cent of the 
affected animals die. 

If animals which have died of this disease, be examined, there will 
be occasionally found, in addition to the changes of the mucous mem- 
brane of mouth and nasal cavities referred to above, shallow ulcers in 
these situations. In severe cases membranous (croupous) deposits are 
found in the throat. Similar deposits have been found upon the mu- 
cous membrane of the fourth stomach and intestine, which is always in- 
flamed. There is more or less inflammation of the membranes of the 
brain. In countries where rinderpest occasionally appears it may be 
difficult to distinguish between it and malignant catarrh, owing to a 
general similarity of the symptoms. In such cases only a trained veteri- 
narian who takes into consideration all the different symptoms and 
lesions of both diseases should decide. 

Treatment. — There is no specific treatment for this affection, and the 
various symptoms, may be dealt with, if desired, according to the meth- 
ods given in the first part of this volume. Preventive treatment, which 
insists on a removal of the infected animals and a thorough cleaning 
and disinfection of infected stables, may prevent the subsequent appear- 
ance of the disease. If the floors are low and damp they should be 
raised and made dry. 

SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER (TEXAS FEVER). 

This disease, which is more commonly known as splenetic or Texas 
fever, is a specific fever communicated by cattle which have recently 
been moved northward from the infected district, or which is con- 
tracted by cattle taken into the infected district from other parts of 
the world. It is characterized by the peculiarity among animal diseases 
that the animals which disseminate the infection are apparently in good 
health, while those which sicken and die from it do not as a rule infect 
others. 

It is accompanied by high fever, greatly enlarged spleen, destruction 
of the red blood corpuscles, escape of the coloring matter of the blood 
through the kidneys, giving the urine a deep red color, by a yellowness 
of the mucous membranes and fat, which is seen more especially in fat 
cattle, by a rapid loss of strength, and by fatal results in a large pro- 
portion of cases. 

This disease has various names in different sections of the country 
where it frequently appears. It is often called .Spanish fever, acclima- 
tion fever, red-water, black-water, distemper, murrain, dry murrain, 
yellow murrain, and bloody murrain. 

The earliest accounts we have of this disease date back to 1814, 
when it was stated by Dr. James Mease before the Philadelphia So- 
ciety for Promoting Agriculture that the cattle from a certain district 
in South Carolina so certainly disease all others with which they mix 
in their progress to the North, that they are prohibited by the people 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 429 

of Virginia from passing through the State; that these cattle infect 
others while they themselves were in perfect health, and that cattle 
from Europe or the interior taken to the vicinity of the sea were 
attacked by a disease that generally proved fatal. Similar observa- 
tions have been made in regard to a district in the southeastern part 
of Virginia, the eastern portion of North Carolina, nearly the whole 
of South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, 
the southern portion of Tennessee, and a large part of Arkansas, 
Indian Territory, and Texas. It was the frequent and severe losses 
following the driving of cattle from the infected district in Texas into 
and across the Western States and Territories which led to the disease 
being denominated Texas fever. It is now known, however, that the 
infection is not peculiar to Texas or even to the Gulf coast, but that it 
extends far inland and northward almost to the southern line of Mary- 
land. 

When cattle from other sections of the country are taken into the 
infected district they contract this disease usually during the first sum- 
mer, and if they are adult animals, particularly milch cows or fat cattle, 
nearly all die. Calves are much more likely to survive. The disease is 
one from which immunity is acquired, and, therefore, calves which 
recover are not again attacked, as a rule, even after they become adult. 

When the infection is disseminated beyond the permanently infected 
district, the roads, pastures, pens, and other inclosures are dangerous 
for susceptible animals until freezing weather. The infection then dis- 
appears, and cattle may be driven over the grounds or kept in the 
inclosures the succeeding summer and the disease will not reappear. 
There are some exceptions to this rule in the section just north of the 
boundary line of the infected district. In this locality the infection 
sometimes resists the winters, especially when these are mild. There 
is some reason for believing that the infected district is gradually extend- 
ing toward the north, but more careful observations need to be made 
before safe conclusions on this point can be adopted. 

In regard to the manner in which the disease is communicated, ex- 
perience shows that this does not occur by animals coming near or in 
contact with each other. It is an indirect infection. The cattle from 
the infected district first infect the pastures, roads, pens, cars, etc., and 
the susceptible cattle obtain the virus second hand from these. Usually 
animals do not contract disease when separated from infected pastures 
by a fence. If, however, there is any drainage or washing by rains 
across the line of fence this rule does not hold good. 

The investigations made by the Bureau of Animal Industry demon- 
strate that the ticks which adhere to cattle from the infected district 
are the chief means of conveying the infection to the bodies of suscepti- 
ble cattle. The infection, so far as we know, is not spread by the 
saliva, the urine, or the manure of cattle from the infected district. In 
studying the causation and prevention of this disease, attention must 



430 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

therefore be largely given to the ticks, and it now appears probable 
that if the cattle could be freed from this parasite when leaving the 
infected district they would not be able to cause the malady. The dis- 
covery of the connection of the ticks with the production of the disease 
is so recent that it is impossible to predict at this time the influence 
which it may have in preventing its spread. It establishes an essen- 
tial point, however, and indicates many lines of investigation which 
are likely to yield important results. 

Nature of the disease* — Texas fever is caused by an organism 
which lives within the red blood-corpuscles and breaks them up. It 
is therefore simply a blood disease. The organism does not belong to 
the bacteria but to the protozoa. It is not, in other words, a microscopic 
plant, but it belongs to the lowest forms of the animal kingdom. This 
very minute organism multiplies very rapidly in the body of the infected 
animal, and in acute cases causes an enormous destruction of red corpus- 
cles in a few days. How it gets into the red corpuscle it is not possible 
to state, but it appears that it enters as an exceedingly minute body, 
probably endowed with motion, and only after it has succeeded in enter- 
ing the corpuscle does it begin to enlarge. Concerning the more detailed 
description of this micro-organism we must refer the reader to the 
forthcoming special report on Texas fever. We shall simply delay in 
this place to describe its main characters. Plate xxiii, Fig. 4, illustrates 
an early stage of this blood parasite. The red corpuscle contains a 
very minute roundish body which is stained blue to bring it into view. 
The body is as a rule situated near the edge of the corpuscle. Fig. 5 
illustrates an older stage in the growth of the parasite, in fact the 
largest which has thus far been detected. It will be noticed that there 
are usually two bodies in a corpuscle. These bodies are in general 
pear shaped. The narrow ends are always toward each other when two 
are present in the same corpuscle. If we bear in mind that the average 
diameter of the red blood corpuscles of cattle is from xwso to roVo inch, 
the size of the contained parasite may be at once appreciated by a 
glance at the figures referred to. 

The various disease processes which go on in Texas fever, and which 
we may observe by examining the organs after death, all result from 
the destruction of the red corpuscles. This destruction may be ex- 
tremely rapid or slow. When it is rapid we have the acute, usually 
fatal, type of Texas fever which is always witnessed in the height of the 
Texas-lever season; that is, during the latter weeks of August and the 
early weeks of September. When the destruction of corpuscles is 
slower a mild, usually non-fatal, type of the disease is called forth which 
is only witnessed late in autumn or more rarely in July and the early 
part of August. Cases of the mild type occurring thus early usually 
become acute later on and terminate fatally. 

* The investigations froni which the facts in the remainder of this article are taken 
will he published in full in a forthcoming report of the Bureau of Auimal Industry 
byDrs. Theobald Smith and F. L. Kilbome. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 431 

The acute disease is fatal in most cases, and the fatality is due not so 
much to the loss of blood corpuscles as to the difficulty which the or- 
gans have in getting rid of the waste products arising from this whole- 
sale destruction. How great this may be a simple calculation will 
serve to illustrate. If we take a steer weighing 1,000 pounds, the blood 
in its body will amount to about 50 pounds, if we assume that the blood 
represents one-twentieth of the weight of the body, a rather low esti- 
mate. According to experimental determination at the Bureau Station, 
which consists in counting the number of blood corpuscles in a given 
quantity of blood from day to day in such an animal, the corpuscles con- 
tained in from 5 to 10 pounds of blood may be destroyed within twenty- 
four hours. The remains of these corpuscles and the coloring matter 
in them must either be converted into bile or excreted unchanged. The 
result of this effort on the part of the liver causes extensive disease 
of this organ. The bile secreted by the liver cells contains so much 
solid material that it stagnates in the finest bile canals and chokes these 
up completely. This in turn interferes with the nutrition of the liver 
cells and they undergo fatty degeneration and perish. The functions 
of the liver are thereby completely suspended and death is the result. 
This enormous destruction of corpuscles takes place to a large extent 
in the kidneys, where a great number of corpuscles containing the para- 
sites are always found in acute cases. This accounts largely for the 
blood-colored urine or red water which is such a characteristic feature 
of Texas fever. The corpuscles themselves are not found in the urine ; 
it is the red coloring matter or hemoglobin which leaves them when they 
break up and passes into the urine. 

Symptoms. — After a period of exposure to infected soil, which may 
vary from thirteen to ninety days, and which will be more fully dis- 
cussed further on, under the subject of cattle ticks as bearers of the 
Texas-fever parasite, the disease first shows itself in dullness, loss of 
appetite, and a tendency to leave the herd and stand or lie down alone. 
A few days before these symptoms appear the presence of a high fever 
may be detected by the clinical thermometer. The temperature rises 
from a normal of 101°-103° F. to 106° and 107° P. There seems to be 
little or no change in temperature until recovery or death ensues. The 
period of high temperature or fever varies considerably. As it indi- 
cates the intensity of the disease process going on within, the higher it 
is the more rapid the fatal end. When it does not rise above 104° F. the 
disease is milder and more prolonged. 

The bowels are mostly constipated during the fever ; towards the end 
the feces may become softer and rather deeply tinged with bile. The 
urine shows nothing abnormal during the course of the disease until 
near the fatal termination, when it may be deeply stained with the col- 
oring matter of the blood. (Hemoglobinuria; see Plate xliii, Fig. 3.) 
Although this symptom is occasionally observed in animals which 
recover, yet it may generally be regarded as an indication of approach- 



432 DISEASES OF CATTLE 

ing death. The pulse and respiration are usually much more rapid 
than during' health. 

Other symptoms in addition to those mentioned have been described 
by observers, but they do not seem to be constant, and only the above 
are nearly always present. As the end approaches emaciation becomes 
very marked, the blood is very thin and watery, and the closing of any 
wound of the skin by clots is retarded. The animal manifests increas- 
ing- stupor and may lie down much of the time. Signs of delirium have 
been observed in some cases. Death occurs most frequently in the 
night. 

The course of the disease is very variable in duration. Death may 
ensue in from three days to several weeks after the beginning of the 
fever. Those that recover ultimately do so very slowly, owing to the 
great poverty of the blood in red corpuscles. Tbe flesh is regained but 
very gradually, and the animal may be subjected to a second though 
mild attack later on in the autumn, which pushes the full recovery on- 
ward to the beginning of winter. 

In the mild type of the disease, which occurs in October and Novem- 
ber, symptoms of disease are well nigh absent. There is little if any 
fever, and if it were not for loss of flesh and more or less dullness the 
disease might pass unnoticed, as it undoubtedly does in a majority of 
cases. If, however, the blood corpuscles be counted from time to time 
a gradually diminishing number will be found, and after several weeks 
only about one-fifth or one-sixth of the normal number are present. It 
is, indeed, surprising how little impression upon the animal this very 
impoverished condition of the blood appears to make. It is probable, 
however, that if two animals kept under the same conditions, one healthy 
and the other at the end of one of these mild attacks, be weighed, the 
difference would be plainly shown. 

Pathological changes observable after death. — In the preceding pages 
some of these have already been referred to in describing the nature 
of the disease. It is very important at times to determine whether a 
certain disease is Texas fever or some other disease, like anthrax, for 
example. This fact can, as a rule, be determined at once by a thorough 
microscopic examination of the blood. The necessary apparatus and 
the requisite qualifications for this task leave this method entirely in 
the hands of experts. There is, however, a considerable number of 
changes caused by this disease, which may be detected by the naked 
eye when the body has been opened. These, put together, make a mis- 
take quite impossible. The presence of small ticks on the skin of the 
escutcheon, the thighs, and the udder is a very important sign in herds 
north of the Texas fever -line, as it indicates that they have been brought 
in some maimer from the South and carried the disease with them, as 
will be explained later. Another very important sign is the thin, watery 
condition of the blood, either just before death or when the fever has 
been present for four or five days. A little incision into the skin will 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 433 

enable anyone to determine this point. Frequently the skin is so poor 
in blood that it may require several incisions to draw a drop or more. 

The changes in the internal organs, as found on post-mortem exami- 
nations, are briefly as follows : The spleen or milt is much larger than 
in healthy animals. It may weigh three or four times as much. When 
it is incised the contents or pulp is blackish (see Plate xlii, Fig. 1), and 
may even well out as a disintegrated mass. The markings of the 
healthy spleen (Fig. 2) are all effaced by the enormous number of blood 
corpuscles which have collected in the spleen and to which the enlarge- 
ment is due. jSText to the spleen the liver will arouse our attention. 
(See Plate xliii, Fig. 2.) It is larger than in the healthy state, has lost 
its natural brownish color (Fig. 1), and now has on the surface a paler 
yellowish hue. When it is incised this yellowish tinge or mahogany 
color, as it has been called by some, is still more prominent. This is 
due to the large amount of bile in the finest bile capillaries, and as 
these are not uniformly filled with it the cut surface has a more or less 
mottled appearance. This bile injection causes in many cases a fatty 
degeneration of the liver cells, which makes the organ appear still 
lighter in color. 

In all cases the gall bladder should be examined. This is distended 
with bile, which holds in suspension a large quantity of yellow flakes, 
so that when it is poured into a tall bottle to settle fully one-half or more 
of the column of fluid will be occupied by a layer of flakes. If mucus 
is x^resent at the same time the bile may become so viscid that when it 
is poured from one glass to another it forms long bands. The bile in 
health is a limpid fluid containing no solid particles. 

If the animal has not been observed during life to pass urine colored 
with blood or red water, the bladder should be opened. This quite 
invariably, in acute cases, contains urine which varies in color from a 
deep port wine to a light claret. In many cases the color is so dense 
that light will not pass through even a thin layer. (Plate xliii, Fig. 3.) 
The kidneys are always found congested in the acute attack. The dis- 
ease exerts but little effect on the stomach and intestines beyond more 
or less reddening of the mucous membrane. Hence an examination of 
these may be safely omitted. The lungs are, as a rule, not diseased. 
The heart usually shows patches of blood extravasation on the inside 
(left ventricle), and less markedly on the outer surface. 

We have observed jaundice of the various tissues but very rarely. 
It has been observed by some quite regularly, however. 

The cattle tick, Ixodes bovis (Riley) Boophilus bovis (Curtice), as the 
carrier of Texas fever. (Plate xliv.) — The cattle tick is, as its name 
indicates, a parasite of cattle in the southern part of the United States. 
It belongs to the group of Arthropoda and to the genus Ixodes (Boo- 
philus), which is included in the order Acarina. Its life history is quit e 
simple and easily traced from one generation to another. It is essen- 
tially a parasite, attaching itself to the skin and drawing the blood of 
24097 28 



434 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

its host. It is unable to come to maturity and reproduce its kind 
unless it becomes attached to the skin of cattle, whence it may obtain 
its food. 

The eggs laid on the ground after the female has dropped from the 
host begin to develop at once. When the embryo is fully formed within 
the shell it ruptures this and gains its freedom. The time required 
from the laying of the eggs to their hatching varies considerably 
according to the temperature. In the laboratory in the heat of mid- 
summer this was accomplished iu about thirteen days. In the late fall 
under the same conditions, it required from four to six weeks. The 
larva after emerging from the egg is very minute, six-legged, and just 
visible to the naked eye. (Plate xliv, Fig. 3.) If these larvae be kept on 
a layer of moist sand or earth in a covered dish they may remain alive 
for months, but there is no appreciable increase in size. As soon, how- 
ever, as they are placed upon cattle growth begins. 

On pastures these little creatures soon find their way upon cattle. 
They attach themselves by preference to the tender skin on the escutch- 
eon, the inside of the thighs, and on the base of the udder. Yet when 
they are very numerous they may be found, in small numbers, on vari- 
ous parts of the body, such as the neck, the chest, and the ears. 

The changes which they undergo during their parasitic existence 
were first studied by Dr. Cooper Curtice in 1889. The young tick 
within a week molts and the second or nymphal stage of the parasite's 
life is thus ushered in. After this change it has four pairs of legs. 
Within another week another molt takes place by which the tick passes 
from the nymphal to the sexual or adult stage. Impregnation now 
takes place, and with the development of the ova in the body the ani- 
mal takes an increased quantity of blood, so that it becomes very much 
larger in a few days. That the rapid growth is due to the blood taken 
in may be easily proved by crushing one. The intestine is distended 
with a thick tarry mass composed of partly digested blood. When the 
female has reached a certain stage of maturity it drops to the ground 
and begins to lay a large number of eggs, which hatch in the time given 
above. 

The life of the cattle tick is thus spent largely on cattle, and although 
the young or larvae may live for a long time on the ground in the sum- 
mer season they can not mature excepting as parasites on cattle. We 
have purposely omitted various details of the life history, including that 
of the male, as they are not necessary to an understanding of our pres- 
ent subject — Texas fever. How this is transmitted we will proceed to 
consider. 

Southern cattle sent north during the spring and summer months 
carry on their bodies large numbers of the cattle tick. These when 
matured drop off and lay their eggs on northern pastures. These hatch, 
and the young tick soon gets upon any northern cattle which happen 
to be on the pasture. As soon as they have attached themselves to the 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 435 

skin they inoculate the cattle and Texas fever breaks out a week or 
more thereafter. That ticks may and do produce Texas fever had been 
suspected for many years in various parts of the country. A definite 
proof was not offered, however, and the experiments carried on by the 
Bureau of Animal Industry were the first to demonstrate this impor- 
tant fact. It is not within the scope of this work to describe the steps 
by which this conclusion was reached, nor the experiments made in 
this direction. These will be found in the forthcoming report. There 
are some important facts in the disease itself cleared up by these 
experiments which require mention here. 

The so-called period of incubation. — After the young ticks have 
attached themselves to cattle the fever appears about ten days there- 
after in midsummer. When the weather is cool, as in autumn, this 
period may be a little longer. The actual period of incubation may be 
shorter than this, for if blood from a case of Texas fever be injected into 
the blood-vessels of healthy cattle the fever may appear within five days. 
When cattle graze upon pastures over which Southern cattle have 
passed, the time when the disease appears varies within wide limits. 
When the animals have been put upon pastures immediately after 
Southern cattle have infected them with ticks, it may take from thirty 
to sixty days, or even longer, before the disease appears. This will be 
readily understood when we recall the life history of ticks. The South- 
ern cattle leave only matured ticks which have dropped from them. 
These must lay their eggs and the latter be hatched before any ticks 
can get upon native cattle. The shortest period is thus not less than 
thirty days, if we include ten days for the period of incubation after 
the young tick has attached itself to native cattle. When the infec- 
tion of pastures with ticks has taken place early in the season, or when 
this is cold, the period will be much longer because it takes longer for 
the eggs to hatch. 

If native cattle are placed upon pastures which have been infected 
some time before with ticks, the disease will appear so much sooner 
because the young ticks may be already hatched and attack the cattle 
at once. It will be evident, therefore, that the length of time elapsing 
between the exposure of native cattle on infected fields and the appear- 
ance of the disease will depend on the date of original infection and on 
the weather, whether cold or hot. When native cattle are placed upon 
fields on which young ticks are already present they will show the fever 
in thirteen to fifteen days if the season be hot. 

The fever appears before the ticks have matured. In fact they are 
still small enough to be overlooked. In any case very careful search 
should be made for them in those places upon which they prefer to 
locate, the thighs, escutcheon, and udder. After the acute stage of the 
fever has passed by the ticks begin to swell up and show very plainly, 
(Plate xliv, Figs. 6 and 7.) 

Prevention. — So far as our experiments have gone they indicate that 



43G DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Texas fever is carried north only by tlie cattle tick. That there may be 
other sources of infection can not be denied, but if there be such they 
come into operation rarely and perhaps in very restricted localities. 
Hence, to prevent Texas fever north of the permanently infected area 
is to keep the x^astures free from cattle ticks, and to do this no Southern 
cattle with ticks must be allowed upon them. Ticks may, however, 
reach pastures in other ways. Cattle cars from the South may leave 
the sweepings and manure in places where cattle may get access to 
them. These will contain ticks or eggs which will give rise to a brood 
of young ticks in due time, ready to inoculate cattle when the opportu- 
nity presents. 

How to rid pastures of ticks without destroying the vegetation upon 
it we do not know at present. Every pasture once infected is dangerous 
during the entire season. Fortunately the winter destroys the tick and 
a fresh importation from the South is necessary to produce the disease 
again during the following season. This is not strictly true for sheltered 
places near the Texas-fever line, for they may live through very mild 
winters in such places and produce disease the following summer. The 
precise temperature at which the egg or the various stages of the cat- 
tle tick are destroyed can not be accurately ascertained, because it 
depends on the amount of protection and shelter which they may obtain. 
It is therefore impossible to state how late in the winter ticks carried 
from the South are still likely to perish in the North before the ensuing 
spring. We know that cold greatly retards the development of ticks 
in the egg and afterwards, and that any fatal disease in cold weather is 
not likely to occur, but if the ticks should survive until summer the 
danger of an outbreak is imminent. This danger diminishes, of course, 
the farther north we go and the period of time during which ticks may 
be carried thither with impunity is greater, owing to the longer season 
of cold. 

Treatment.^-When the disease has broken out, all animals, the sick 
as well as the healthy, should at once be removed to another non- 
infected pasture. While this may not cut short the disease, it may 
save the lives of some by removing them from the possibility of being 
attacked by more young ticks. Removal from infected pastures like- 
wise prevents a second later attack in October or early in November, 
which is caused by another generation of ticks. It is true that sick 
natives infect with a new generation of ticks the pasture to which they 
are removed, but these usually appear so late that they have but little 
opportunity to do any damage. Hence, sick natives do not, as a rule, 
cause visible disease in other natives. 

It is of importance to remove all ticks, as far as this is possible, from 
sick animals, since they abstract a considerable amount of blood and 
thereby retard the final recovery. No systematic experiments have as 
yet been made in the medicinal treatment of the sick, as the study of 
the cause of the disease has taken all the time that could be given to 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. 437 

these investigations in past years. Sulphate of quinia, in doses of 15 
to 30 grains, according to the size of the animal, has apparently given 
good results in the hands of some veterinarians, and tincture of aconite 
root and Epsom salts have been combined with it according to indica- 
tions of the individual cases. 

The previous pages have reference only to northern pastures. "Whether 
the tick alone, or perhaps other pests also infect cattle which have been 
taken south, we are unable to state without having recourse to experi- 
mental inquiries. It is reasonable to assume, however, that the same 
causes are operative in the permanently infected area, and that ticks 
must be kept away from imported animals, especially during the warmer 
half of the year if disease is to be prevented. 

Of the means by which ticks may be most easily and effectually 
removed from cattle or kept away from those not yet attacked, noth- 
ing definite can be said at present, and there is abundant room for 
experimentation in this direction, especially within the area perma- 
nently infested with the cattle tick. 

Sanitary regulations. — The disease, outside of the infected district, 
may be prevented by proper regulations governing the movement of 
cattle from that district during the season of the year that infection is 
possible. Such regulations are now made yearly by the Secretary of 
Agriculture. They define the boundary of the infected district, and 
provide that no cattle shall go out of it except for immediate slaugh- 
ter during that portion of the year included between the dates of Feb- 
ruary 15 and December 1. Cattle from the district going to slaughter 
can not be driven, but must be shipped by rail or boat. The waybills 
and cars are marked " Southern cattle " when they cross the boundary 
line, and when they are unloaded for feeding, watering, or sale they 
are placed in pens set apart for such animals and into which native 
stock is not allowed to go. The cars and boats which have trans- 
ported such cattle must be cleaned and disinfected before native stock 
can be carried. 

By these simple regulations the disease has been almost entirely pre- 
vented during the last two years, and little or no hardship has been 
caused to those shipping or handling cattle from the infected district. 
This success is one of the best illustrations of the value of proper reg- 
ulations made in accordance with the principles of veterinary science 
and intelligently administered. 



438 DISEASES OF CATTLE 



TEXAS FEVER. 
[Description of plates.] 

Plate XLTI. Fig. 1. Spleen of an acute fatal case of Texas fever. The narrow 
end of the spleen is here represented. Fig. 2. Spleen of healthy steer. Though the 
latter animal weighed one-half more than the former, the weight of the diseased 
spleen, 6|- pounds, was nearly three times that of the healthy spleen, 2§ pounds. 

Plate XLIII. Showing the cut surface of a healthy liver taken from a steer 
slaughtered for beef. Fig. 2. Showing the cut surface of the liver in Texas fever. 
Fig. 3. Represents the appearance of the urine in an acute fatal case of Texas fever. 
Fig. 4. Shows red corpuscles, magnified a thousand diameters, containing the par- 
asite of Texas fever. This appears as a blue point, a, near the edge of the corpuscle. 
The blood was taken from a skin incision. The case was non-fatal and occurred late 
in fall. Fig. 5. Shows red corpuscles from the blood of an acute fatal case, twenty 
hours before death. The Texas fever microbes, a, are shown as pear-shaped bodies 
stained with methylene blue within the red corpuscles. The larger. body on the 
right, h, is a white blood corpuscle also stained with methylene blue. Magnified 
a thousand diameters. 

Plate XLIV. The cattle tick, the carrier of Texas fever. Fig. 1. A series of ticks, 
natural size, from the smallest, just hatched from the egg, to the mature female ready 
to drop off and lay eggs. Fig. 2. Eggs, magnified 5 times. Fig. 3. The young tick 
just hatched, magnified 40 times. Fig. 4. The male after the last molt, magnified 
10 times. Fig. 5. The female after the last molt, magnified 10 times. Fig. 6. A por- 
tion of the skin of the udder, showing the small ticks. From a fatal case of Texas 
fever produced by placing young ticks on the animal. Natural size. Fig. 7. A por- 
tion of the ear of the same animal showing same full-grown ticks, ready to drop off. 
Natural size. 



433 






l'ITLE 



I'TSTER. 






. narrow 

■ ■ ■. )j the 

■- ased 
- 

ken from a steer 
liver in Texas fever. 
trine in an a< case of Texas fever, 

diameters, containing the par- 
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ton. The case was non-fatal and occurred 
iows red corpuscles from the blood of an acute fatal case, tw 
•lies, a, are shows as pear-shaped bi 

rpuscles. The larger. body on the 
ne blue. Magnified 
- 

A. series o 
* 

young tick 
o agnified 
fig. 6./ A por- 
tal case of Texas 
i size. Fig. 7. A por.- 
l kicks, ready to drop off. 



Fi£. 1 




Fig. 2 




PLATE X'T.TTT 
Fig. 3 





Fig. 4 



Fig. 5 



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TEXAS FEVER. 



PLATE XL IV 



Fio.J 



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PJ ' H 



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-4. 



Fi2.3 




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Fig. 6 



■MUlk 






Haines, del. 
THE CATTLE TICK- THE CARRIER OF TEXAS FEVER. 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 



By W. A. HENRY, 

Professor of Agriculture and Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, University 

of Wisconsin. 



Ten years ago the cattle business of the country was undergoing a 
great and wonderful change; companies were being formed to control 
vast herds which were to range unrestrained over the western plains, 
with no provisions as to feed except the seeming abundance of natural 
grasses, and little care except rounding up and branding. With this 
unprecedented expansion came the natural attendant of good prices 
for cattle of almost any quality in the older agricultural sections, and 
beef-producers everywhere made money. It mattered little in Illinois 
or Iowa whether a fattening steer ate half a bushel of corn a day or 
only a third of a bushel, for there was profit in the business, and giv- 
ing attention to little details about feeding was not to be thought of in 
such times. Those farmers who had advanced in dairying far enough 
to make fine goods likewise found high prices awaiting their products 
and were satisfied to continue their feeding operations with little 
thought of closer economy. 

But times have changed; the young stock bought from our western 
farms at good prices to go to the plains proved fruitful and multiplied 
amazingly, and hordes of their descendants have been coming back 
year after year to aid in depressing the cattle market. Dairy products 
have kept up wonderfully well, but I do not think we can hope for higher 
prices at any time than have ruled the past year. 

We are passing through a period of falling prices which began years 
ago with the manufacturer, carrier, and merchant, and which is now 
bearing down most heavily upon our agricultural industries. The mar- 
velous advancement made in transportation facilities the world over 
has brought about a new set of conditions ; stock, bred thousands of 
miles apart and reared under the most diverse conditions of range, cli- 
mate, feed, and cost of production, meet at the great commercial cen- 
ters, to be sold according to supply and demand, quality alone being 
the varying factor. The problem is still further complicated by the 
production of meat in distant parts of the world, which is now shipped 
as frozen carcasses to the great meat-consuming centers. Nor is there 
any going backward in this matter. We can not hope that any of the 

439 



440 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

potent forces now at work, which, all teiid to equalizing the markets, 
will cease for even a single day. While legislation may aid in some 
minor matters, the general law that supply and demand rule prices 
remains inviolable. I know of but two means of successfully meeting 
the sharp competition which is certain to continue, first, by making 
products of a higher quality, and, second, by cheapening the cost of 
production. 

While lack of space prevents more than a mere mention of the sub- 
ject, I cau not help but urge that our farmers and stockmen endeavor 
to secure the very best machines possible for converting coarse feeds 
into beef and dairy products. To have any other than the best cattle 
obtainable for the specific purpose in view is to start handicapped in 
what is sure to be a severe contest. 

In the other line of improvement there is also much opportunity for 
careful study and the exercise of discretion and good judgment. The 
farmer and stockman should have a clear knowledge and good under- 
standing of the several different kinds of stock foods, their relative 
values, and the combinations of those best suited for different animals 
in different stages of growth and usefulness. With an earnest desire 
to help the feeder in the study of the great problem which constantly 
confronts him this chapter is written. 

SCIENCE AND STOCK-FEEDING-. 

Fifty years ago those great lights in agricultural chemistry, Liebig, 
of Germany, Boussingault, of France, and Lawes and Gilbert, of Eng- 
land, began investigations of agricultural problems, many of which 
were immediately helpful to agriculture and all tended to awaken an 
interest in an art previously neglected by scientific investigators. Out 
of this awakening grew the movement for a better knowledge of animal 
nutrition, and how and by what means the products of our fields were 
manufactured into flesh, milk, and other animal products. Germany 
has led the world in founding agricultural-experiment stations, and to 
German chemists and animal physiologists are we largely indebted for 
what is known in this most important field. Though the investigations 
began over a generation ago and have occupied the energies of many 
eminent men, the records of whose observations fill hundreds of books, 
so great is the subject that it now seems but fairly begun. Still, much 
has been found that is of great importance and utility to the practical 
stockman. 

THE GEEMAN FEEDING- TABLES. 

Mainly through the studies of the German investigators has come 
the first attempt to place the great art of feeding on a scientific basis. 
The various investigations in animal nutrition have been summarized 
and set forth in the writings of Wolff and Kuehn, of Germany, and very 
ably presented to English readers by Dr. Armsby in his " Manual of 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 441 

Cattle Feeding'." The leading features of this system have also been 
given in some of the reports of our American experiment stations. 
Being largely the result of German investigations and formulations, it 
is naturally spoken of as the "German system," while the tables of 
data relative to feeding stuffs and feeding rations are usually spoken 
of as the German feeding tables or the tables of Kuehn or Wolff, as 
compiled and arranged by those writers. 

Table I of this chapter presents the studies of chemists both in this 
country and abroad, summarized and placed in the most available con- 
densed form. The figures giving the composition of fodders are in most 
cases taken from the compilation of analyses of American fodders by 
Dr. B. H. Jenkins and A. L. Winton, jr., first published in Volume II 
of the Experiment Station Eecord, Department of Agriculture (pp. 
702-709). That portion of the table which gives the digestible constit- 
uents was derived from the first part of the table through coefficients 
of digestibility given by Dr. Jenkins in the Keport of the Connecticut 
Experiment Station for 1888 or from later sources. 

There was a time when farmers thought that science, and even agri- 
cultural science, could bring little that would be helpful to them, but 
happily that day is past, and I approach the scientific side of the sub- 
ject of feeding with no fear whatever that it will prove uninteresting 
to my readers, but rather that a large majority will gladly avail them- 
selves of any opportunity which may offer for a better understanding 
of the great problem of stock feeding. It will be remembered in study- 
ing the table that like most first attempts at definite expression of diffi- 
cult and complex problems, what is here given is but a crude expres- 
sion of important laws, and that the tables will no doubt be consider- 
ably modified or perhaps supplanted in time by better ones, when the 
animal physiologist has enlarged our knowledge of what becomes of 
plant constituents in the animal body. In its present form it contains 
so much of value that it will well repay all the study and time devoted 
to it. 

WHAT THE TABLE SHOWS. 

This table looks formidable enough, but when we have studied it, 
column by column, I do not think it will be regarded as difficult, nor 
will its contents seem dry to farmer readers. In the first column are 
given the names of fodders, all of which are used in some portion of 
the country for stock-feeding jrarposes • next to this comes a statement 
of the number of analyses from which the succeeding average figures 
are derived. 

Water. — In the laboratory the scales of the chemist are so delicate 
that he can weigh a thimbleful of corn meal with a smaller proportional 
error than the farmer weighs a wagon load of corn. In a small dish 
on these scales he places a sample of the fodder with which he is to 
work and determines its weight. Placing this in an oven it is dried at 
a temperature of 212° F. for several hours and weighed again. The 



442 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

heat lias driven off the water and the difference in the two weights 
represents the water which the sample contained. The average amount 
of water found in the various samples in the list is placed in the column 
headed " Water." It will be seen that the proportion of water in the 
different feed stuffs varies greatly. In 100 pounds of pasture grass 
there are 75.3 pounds of water on an average; with roots the amount 
reaches as high as 90 pounds, while for straw and grain it varies from 
8 to 16 pounds of water per hundred weight. Water is the great vehicle 
for transporting food both in the plant and animal, and, while of the 
highest importance to both, it is so universal and abundant that we 
need not further consider it at this time. 

Ash. — Carefully burning a sample of the fodder, the chemist deter- 
mines the ash. By the table we find that in 100 pounds of pasture 
grass there are 2.5 pounds ash, while in clover hay there are over 6 
pounds. One hundred pounds of shelled corn contains only 1.5 pounds 
of ash, while the same weight of wheat bran yields over 5 pounds. The 
ash elements in plants are very important, since they enter into the 
composition of all the tissues of the body in a small way, and form the 
larger part of the bones. Experience shows that when the stockman 
feeds his animals abundantly with a variety of nutritious foods they 
are amply supplied with ash for all necessities of the body, so that as 
with water this part of the plant substance need not receive special 
attention when considering the constituents of feeds, though there are 
a few special cases where the supply of ash is apt to be lacking, even 
when the animals are seemingly well nourished. 

Crude protein marks a very important group of substances in fodders, 
the characteristic element of all being nitrogen. The chemist has found 
that protein compounds weigh 6.25 times as much as the nitrogen con- 
tained ; by a complicated process he determines the weight of nitrogen 
in a sample of feed, and multiplies this by 6.25, which gives the crude 
protein. A considerable portion of the bones, the ligaments which hold 
the bones together, the muscles which surround the bones, the tendons 
which bind the muscles to the bone, and the great nervous system, as 
well as the internal organs of the body, are largely composed of protein 
compounds. From this we can readily understand that protein is a very 
important part of stock foods, being especially needed with young, grow- 
ing animals. We turn with interest to the table and note that the total 
crude protein in pasture grass is 4 pounds to the hundred, while in 
oats there are 11.8 pounds, in corn, 10.5 pounds, and nearly 33 pounds 
in 100 of linseed meal. 

Crude fiber is determined by boiling a sample of the fodder first with 
a weak alkali, and then with a weak acid in order to dissolve out as 
much of the substance as possible. The undissolved portions represent 
the tougher parts of the framework of the plant, usually termed cellu- 
lose or crude fiber. The table shows that a large portion of rye straw 
is crude fiber, while in grains bike corn or wheat the amount is very 
small. 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 443 

Ether extract. — On another sample of the fodder the chemist places 
ether, which dissolves out whatever fats and wax it contains, and this 
dissolved portion is called the ether extract or crude fat. Hay and 
straw contain very little fat, and still less is found in mangolds or 
turnips, while corn contains considerable, and oil meal and cotton-seed 
meal a relatively large amount. 

Nitrogen-free extract signifies what is left of the organic matter of the 
plant after deducting the preceding groups of elements. It contains 
starch, sugar, dextrine, and gums. 

Carbohydrates. — The nitrogen-free extract and the crude fiber are 
grouped together under the term carbohydrates. The leading function 
of the carbohydrates is to furnish fuel for the animal body. Portions 
not needed for immediate wants may be converted into fat and stored 
up in the tissues awaiting future demands. 

The figures given in all the columns of the table we have passed over 
are derived from analysis in the laboratory, and represent the total 
amount of each of the plant constituents in the several groups. Thus 
far the investigation is purely a chemical one, though the grouping of 
the substances has some relation to the uses of the food in tine animal 
system. Having learned the amount of each of the constituents in a 
given fodder, the chemist proceeds to feed it to some farm animal, 
usually an ox or a sheep, in order to ascertain what portion of each is 
digestible. The value of gold ore is not rated by the total amount of 
gold contained, but rather by that portion which can be recovered by 
practical processes ; so with our feeds, only those portions which can be 
digested and utilized by the animal are really valuable. The results of 
digestion trials are grouped in the last columns of the table under the 
head "Per cent of digestible matter," and these data have cost the 
chemist and animal physiologist much patient labor 5 even now the 
results are crude and far from satisfactory. 

Let us study this table item by item, as we did the first part. We 
learn that while the total crude protein in pasture grass is 4 in 100 
pounds, the digestible crude protein is 2.8 pounds in a hundredweight. 
The digestible carbohydrates, the compounds of crude fiber and nitrogen- 
free extract are 12.3 pounds, and the digestible ether extract 0.6 pound. 
The chemist has found that a pound of fat will give about 2.2 times as 
much heat as a pound of carbohydrates. Since the fats serve the same 
purpose in the body as the carbohydrates, we can reduce the fat found 
in a fodder to a carbohydrate equivalent by multiplying it by 2.2. To 
obtain the nutritive ratio expressed in the last column of the table, the 
digestible fat is multiplied by 2.2 and added to the digestible carbo- 
hydrates, and the sum divided by the digestible protein. The nutritive 
ratio of pasture grass is 1 : 4.9 ; that is, for every pound of digestible 
protein in pasture grass there are 4.9 pounds of digestible carbohydrates 
and carbohydrate equivalents. The following table summarizes the 
results of analyses in digestion trials as just explained: 



444 



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THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 447 

Before passing to the next division of the subject, let us review 
briefly how animals grow and live. All animals live directly or indi- 
rectly on foods furnished by plants. The plant grows through the 
union of chemical compounds taken from the air and soil and brought 
up into its structure, through that mysterious principle called life, by 
the energy of the sun. The sun pouring its rays day after day in sum- 
mer time, furnishes the energy which welds the simpler compounds into 
the more complex ones of the plant organism. In summer time our 
animals crop the grasses of the fields, and in the fall man gathers plants 
and their seeds into barns and storehouses that in winter time he may 
pass them over to his farm animals for sustenance and growth. The 
compounds in the plant substance are separated in the laboratory of 
the stomach and digestive tract and carried about the body, where 
they are built up into the body tissues or stored up as fat, or they may 
be burned up at once if needed to give out energy and warmth. Dr. 
Armsby has happily used the figure of a coiled spring to illustrate this 
wonderful phenomenon. The energy of the sun in summer time winds 
up the spring in the plant, and when the animal consumes the plant 
the spring is unwound and exhibits just as much energy in the unwind- 
ing as was used in winding it up. 

In studying these plant compounds we have divided those which 
need especial attention into three groups, under the heads protein, car- 
bohydrates, and fat. As already shown, the protein compounds are 
that portion of the food material which may go to build up the mus- 
cular portion of the animal body. Among the list of food articles used 
by man rich in protein are the lean part of meat, the white of egg, the 
cheese of milk, and the gluten of wheat; of stock foods rich in pro- 
tein we have cotton-seed meal, oil meal, pease, wheat bran, clover, and 
alfalfa hay. The first great use of protein is in building up the muscu- 
lar portion of the body, but we should not forget that it also gives off 
heat and energy in being broken down to simpler compounds, and may 
also be converted into fat and stored up in the tissues of the body for 
future use. 

Since the carbohydrates contain no nitrogen they can not go to build 
up the muscular portion of the body, but nevertheless they are of 
great importance and form the largest part of foods used by our farm 
animals. The first great use of carbohydrates is to furnish fuel for 
warming the body and enabling it to perform work. Of human foods 
rich in carbohydrates we have sugar and starch, both almost chemi- 
cally pure, while the grain of wheat and corn are both very rich in car- 
bohydrates. In animal foods corn, oat straw and cornstalks are all 
rich in carbohydrates. As the protein compounds may be called the 
muscle-formers, so the carbohydrates may be called the fuel or energy 
givers of the body. The fats in foods serve the same purpose as the 
carbohydrates, but are more potent, giving off more heat in burning. 
A pound of fat is generally regarded as 2.2 times as valuable as a pound 
of sugar or starch in food. 



448 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

AMOUNT OF NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BY OUR FARM ANIMALS. 

The next step in our study is to ascertain the amount of the several 
constituents in feeding materials required by different farm animals 
under varying conditions for maintenance, growth, and fattening. 
Since the weights of our animals vary according to age and breed it is 
well to take some simple standard of weight, and for convenience it has 
been placed at a thousand pounds. The needs of growing animals dif- 
fer from those that are mature, and the requirements of work animals 
are not the same as those at rest or taking on fat. In Table II is sum- 
marized the amount of digestible nutrients required by a thousand 
pounds, live weight, of farm animals. 

To study this table let us take the first case — that of an ox at rest 
in his stall. This ox is supposed to weigh 1,000 pounds, and to be kept 
perfectly comfortable as to temperature and environment, and to do no 
work, neither gaining nor losing in weight. The amount of food 
required under these conditions will be the minimum for such an animal? 
of course. It will be found when we have furnished this ox with the 
digestible nutrients required that the total organic substance, which is 
the weight of the fodder, less the water and ash it contains, will amount 
to 17.5 pounds. Every beat of the heart, every respiration, the tension 
of the muscles while standing, all mean wear and destruction of mus- 
cular tissue. Indeed, every manifestation of life means the consump- 
tion of food to repair the waste of some portion of the body. The 
Germans have held that 0.7 of a pound of crude protein is necessary to 
make good this loss. For warming the body and running its machin- 
ery, if we may so speak, there are required 8 pounds of digestible car- 
bohydrates and 0.15 pounds of ether extract. Adding the digestible 
protein, carbohydrates, and ether extract together, we get a total of 
8.85 pounds of total nutritive substance. If we multiply the digestible 
ether extract by 2.2 and add it to the digestible carbohydrates the sum 
is 8.33, which, divided by 0.7, gives a quotient of 12 in round numbers. 
That is, for every 1 pound of crude protein required by the ox, he needs 
12 pounds of digestible carbohydrates or their equivalents in fat. 
Investigations by several American experimenters have shown that the 
amount of nutrients stated by the Germans as only sufficient to maintain 
a thousand-pound ox is more than sufficient for that purpose under our 
conditions, and that the ox will make a small gain therefrom. Our 
work, however, has not progressed far enough to reconstruct even this 
portion of the table, so that we shall have to let it stand as stated by 
the Germans. 

In the same table we learn that the ox heavily worked requires 2.4 
pounds of digestible protein per day, or three times as much as when 
at rest. We are not surprised at this, for when performing labor the 
muscles must be worn down much more rapidly than when an animal 
is idle. A milch cow of the same weight requires more protein and 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 



449 



almost as much carbohydrates as the heavily worked ox. Though there 
is little tax on the muscles, yet a large amount of protein is needed for 
the cheese portion of the milk. To elaborate this, as well as the sugar 
and fat, makes a heavy demand for food by the dairy cow. 

Table II is compiled by the German scientist, Dr. Emil Wolff, and 
gives the amount of digestible substances he considers necessary by 
our farm animals : 

Table II. — Feeding standards. {According to Wolff.) 
[Per day and per 1,000 pounds, live weight.] 



Animals, etc. 



Tolal 
organic 

sub- 
stance. 



1. Oxen in rest in stall 

2. Wool sheep, coarser breeds 
Wool sheep, finer breeds . . . 

3. Oxen moderately worked. . . 
Oxen heavily worked 

4. Horses moderately worked . 
Horses heavily worked 

5. Milch cows 

0. Fattening oxen, 1st period . 
Fattening oxen, 2d period. . 
Fattening oxen, 3d period. . 

7. Fattening sheep, 1st period 
Fattening sheep, 2d period . 

8. Fattening swine, 1st period 
Fattening swine, 2d period. 
Fattening swine, 3d period. 

9. Growing cattle : 



Age, months. 

2—3 

3—6 

6—12 
12—18 
18—24 

10. Growing sheep: 

5—6 

6—8 

8—11 
11—15 
15—20 

11. Growing fat pigs : 

2—3 
3—5 
5—6 

6—8 

8—12 



live weight, 
per head. 
165 lbs.. 
330 lbs.. 
550 lbs.. 
770 lbs.. 
940 lbs.. 

62 lbs. . 
73 lbs.. 
84 lbs.. 
90 lbs.. 
95 lbs.. 

55 lbs. . 
110 lbs.. 
137 lbs.. 
187 lbs.. 
275 lbs.. 



Nutritive (digestible) 
substances. 



Crude Carbohy- Ether 
protein. drat«s". extract 



Pounds. Pounds 



17.5 
20.0 
22.5 
24.0 
26.0 
21.0 
23.0 

24.0 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
26.0 
25.0 

36.0 
31.0 
23.5 



22.0 
23.4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 



28.0 
25.0 
23.0 
22.5 

22.0 



42.0 
34.0 
31.5 
27.0 
21.0 



0.7 
1.2 
1.5 
1.6 
2.4 
1.6 
2.5 

2.5 

2.5 
3.0 
2.7 
3.0 
3.5 

5.0 
4.0 

2.7 



4.0 
3.2 
2.5 
2.0 
1.6 



3.2 
2.7 
2.1 
1.7 
1.4 



7.5 
5.0 
4.3 
3.4 
2.5 



Pounds. 
8.0 
10.3 
11.4 
11.3 
13.2 
10.0 
12.1 

12.5 
15.0 
14.8 
14.8 
15.2 
14.4 



Pounds 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.50 
0.50 
0.70 

0.40 
0.50 
0.70 
0.60 
0.50 
0.60 



27.5 
24.0 
17.5 



13.8 
33.5 
13.5 
13.0 
12.0 



15.6 
13.3 
11.4 
10.9 
10.4 



2.0 
1.0 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 



0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 



30.0 
25.0 
23.7 
20.4 
16.2 



Total 
nutritive 

sub- 
stances. 



Pounds. 
8.85 
11.70 
13.15 
13.20 
16.10 
12.10 
15.30 

15.40 

18.00 
18.50 
18.10 
18.70 
18.50 

32.50 

28.00 
20.20 



19.8 
17.7 
16.6 
15.4 
13.9 



19.6 
16.6 
14.0 
13.0 
12.1 



37.5 
30.0 
28.0 
23.8 

18.7 



Nutri- 
tive ratio. 



1:12.0 
1:9.0 
1:8.0 
1:7.5 
1:6.0 
1: 7.0 
1:5.5 

1:5:4 
1:6.5 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:5.5 
1:4.5 

1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 



1:4.7 
1:5.0 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 



1:5.5 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 



1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:5.0 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 



From Tables I and II we are now in position to calculate a ration for 
a fattening steer or a dairy cow. Let us form a ration for a dairy cow 
weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding a full flow of milk. Suppose we have 
at hand the following common feeding stuffs : Corn fodder, clover hay, 
bran, corn meal, and cotton-seed meal. By the last table we find the 
requirements for a cow weighing 1,000 pounds to be 2.5 pounds diges- 
tible protein; 12.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates, and 0.4 pound 
digestible ether extract. 
24697 29 



450 DISEASES OP CATTLE. 

We place these amounts at the head of our table at A : 

Tabltc III. — Showing how to construct a ration for a dairy cow. 



Kaluie and weight of feed. 



Organic 
matter. 



Digestible. 



Protein Carbohy- Ether 
' drates. extract. 



A . Required by standard 

I 14 pounds fodder corn 

G pounds clover hay 

-,-, \ 5 pounds roller bran 

1 5 pounds ground corn 

[ First trial ration 

( 2 pounds cotton-seed meal 
C. ] 

t Second trial ration. . . 



Pounds. 
24.0 



Pounds. Pounds. 
2. 5 12. 5 



Pound*. 
0.4 



7.71 
4.71 
4.12 
4.38 



0.39 
0.39 
0.63 

0.36 



4.13 
2.09 
2.20 
3.14 



0.14 
0.10 
0.15 
0.21 



20.92 
1.69 



1.77 
0.74 



11.56 
0.36 



0.60 
0.25 



2.51 



In order to properly distend the rumen the feed should have a cer- 
tain bulk, and will amount on the average to about 24 pounds of organic 
matter, which sum is placed in the first column. This portion of 
the table can vary more than any other without serious detriment. 
Having the requirements before us in the table, let us approxi- 
mate it by combining several food materials from our list. For 
trial we will take 14 pounds of corn fodder. By adding the water 
given in Table I to the ash and subtracting from 100, we have the 
total organic matter in 100 pounds of fodder corn. For 14 pounds of 
fodder corn the amount of organic matter is 7.71, which we place under 
the column headed " Organic matter." By Table 1, again, we learn 
that the digestible crude protein of field cured fodder corn is 2.8 per 
100 pounds; for 14 pounds it is 0.39. The digestible carbohydrates in 
the fodder corn is 29.5 for 100 pounds, and for 14 pounds 4.13. The 
ether extract in 100 pounds of fodder corn is 1 pound, and in 14 pounds 
is 0.14. We place these sums in their respective columns, which gives 
the total organic matter and digestible material for 14 pounds of fodder 
corn. In the same manner we find the organic matter and digestible 
nutrients in 6 pounds of clover hay, then in 5 pounds of bran, and, 
finally, 5 pounds of ground corn, all of which is summarized under B of 
the table. We next add the several columns to ascertain the total con- 
stituents. The sums are found under the first trial ration. We now 
compare this trial ration, which is the sum of the items under B, with 
the required ration at A. We notice the organic matter is a little more 
than 3 pounds short of the requirements, and there is still about three- 
fourths of a pound of protein and a pound of carbohydrates lacking, 
while the ether extract is already 0.2 of a pound in excess. Our ration 
is short of the requirements, and to bring B still nearer A we add to 
the trial ration as given 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal, choosing this 
feed because we must add some substance rich in protein. Betermin- 
ing the nutrients in 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal we place $iem at C, 
and adding the items to the first trial ration, or B, we get fyxe second. 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 451 

trial ration. In the second trial ration we observe that the organic 
matter is 1.31 pounds short of the requirements, the protein .01 of a 
pound in excess, the carbohydrates 0.58 of a pound short, while ether 
extract is 0.45 pound in excess of requirements. We have learned that 
the ether extract is worth 2.2 times as much as the same weight of 
carbohydrates. We multiply the excess, 0.45 by 2.2 and find that the 
excess is equal to 0.99 of a pound of carbohydrates. This sum brings 
the carbohydrates above the required standard. Our second trial ra- 
tion is, therefore, slightly lacking in organic matter, but contains the 
full amount of protein required and a slight excess of carbohydrates or 
their equivalents. We find the nutritive ratio of this ration by multi- 
plying the ether extract 0.85 by 2.2, adding it to the carbohydrates and 
dividing by 2.51, and obtain the nutritive ratio of 1:5.5, or about 
the requirements given in Table II. This is as close as we can expect 
to work in practice. 

Having studied this problem over carefully, the student is in position 
to use Tables I and II in a study of the requirements of his stock and 
the feeds he has at hand. With a little patience feed combinations can 
be made which will conform to the requirements. I have gone over 
this problem carefully in order to show just how the tables are used. 
The student can select from the first table such feed stuffs as he has at 
hand or can secure, and from these construct rations to meet the wants 
of his particular case. The exercise will prove not only interesting, 
but profitable, for it will throw much light on the proper combinations 
of food to best meet the wants of our farm animals. 

CONCLUSIONS IN REGARD TO THE GERMAN SYSTEM. 

In presenting the German system I have followed it closely, so that 
the reader may be able to make practical use of it. About 1880 Prof. J. 
W. Sanborn objected to the feeding standards as laid down by the 
Germans, and especially to Table II, claiming that an ox weighing 1,000 
pounds, when fed with the nutrients stated by Wolff, as required for 
mere maintenance, might actually show considerable gain in weight. 
Eesults at Cornell University and other experiment stations in this 
country go to sustain Prof. Sanborn's objections. Inquiries sent out 
from this station to successful, intelligent dairymen, bring information 
which shows that some are feeding rations which correspond very closely 
to the requirements laid down by Wolff, while others are giving less 
protein than in the standard. Practical experience seems to show that 
good results may be obtained with less protein than 2£ pounds per day 
per thousand pounds of cow. In many rations I think if the amount 
is 2 pounds it will be ample for the dairy cow. The total amount of 
digestible substance should not vary materially from the standard. 
These tables may be compared to a crude and often incorrect map of an 
unknown country, which is better than nothing, though far from satis- 
factory. It is well for the reader to familiarize himself with them, for 
their teachings are very helpful in the practical work of feeding, 



452 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

PRACTICAL FEEDING — THE CALF. 

In successful stock management we must start with a strong, vigor- 
ous calf. This means good blood in both sire and dam, and that there 
has been liberal feeding and good care for generations back. Where 
cattle are reared under practically natural conditions, the rule that 
young stock come in the spring must continue, but I am not so sure that 
spring is the best time for the dropping of calves in the older settled 
portions of the country. Spring calves are incapable of receiving much 
benefit from grass during the first season, because for some time after 
birth the ruminating stomach is undeveloped, and between summer heat 
and pestering flies the thin-skinned creature has a sorry time of it. 
Winter comes on with its dry food just when good progress has com- 
menced, and this is apt to check growth, so that the animal is a full 
year old before it starts on its career untrammeled. Our experience at 
this station corresponds with that of thousands of farmers who are 
strong advocates of having calves dropped in the fall. There is then 
much time to give them the little attentions needed, and since they live 
largely on milk they are easily managed in barn or shed, and occupy 
but little room. When spring comes the youngsters are large enough 
to make good use of the pasture, and the result is good progress from 
the start, and when fall comes they return to the barn large enough to 
make good use of the feed there provided. Cows fresh in the fall yield 
a good flow of milk during the winter, if well fed and comfortably housed ; 
just when the milk flow begins to decrease materially comes the favor- 
able change to grass, under the stimulus of which the yield is increased 
and held for some time. From our experience I put the annual yield of 
milk at from 10 to 15 per cent greater from cows fresh in fall than those 
which calve with the springing of the grass. Breeders of pedigreed 
cattle will find an equal advantage with dairymen, I think, with fall 
calves, for the six months gained make stock a year from the next 
spring of sufficient age to show up in fine style and practically command 
the prices of two-year-olds. 

FEEDING THE CALF. 

Where the calf is allowed to run with the dam few precautions are 
needed, the most important being to see that it does not get too much 
milk, which may cause indigestion. If the calf remains with the dam 
the cow's udder should be stripped out clean night and morning. Any 
neglect in this particular may result in soreness to the teats and udder. 
If the calf scours, the cow should be stripped three times a day; in 
other words, reduce the quantity of milk the calf gets. A young calf 
had better be a little hungry than gorged. After two or three months 
separate the calf from the dam and allow it to suckle three times a day, 
afterwards twice. The greatest danger under this system comes at 
weaning time, when, if the calf has not been properly taught to eat solid 



TIIE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 453 

food, it is apt to pine and shrink in weight, or at least make little gain. 
Teach the call' early to eat grain, using ground corn, bran, oil meal, and 
fine cut hay. The system of allowing calves to take the milk direct 
from the cow can only be practiced with the very best representatives 
of beef breeds, where the most rapid and perfect development is desired, 
either for making early matured beef or for developing fine pedigreed 
stock. 

I believe no breed of cattle can be continued as a first-class dairy 
breed where the calves run with the cows. There is something about 
hand milking which causes a cow to give more milk and for a longer 
period than when it is drawn by the calf. Fine calves, even for beef 
purposes, can be made where the calves drink full milk from the pail, 
but the stockman will usually choose to have the calf do its own milk- 
ing, or, if not, to subsist on skimmed or partly skimmed milk. 

In dairy districts few calves are raised except on skim-milk, and very 
satisfactory dairy stock can be made by this process if a few simple rules 
are intelligently followed. The young calf should be taken away from 
the mother not later than the third day, and for two weeks given from 
10 to 15 pounds of full milk, not less frequently than three times a day. 
At the end of two weeks some skim-milk may be substituted for a por- 
tion of the full milk, making the change gradually until in three or four 
weeks skim-milk only is fed. Full milk of the Jersey or Guernsey cow 
is often too rich for the calf, and part skimmed milk should be used 
from the very start. At the end of a month or six weeks the calf will 
do nicely on two feeds per day. Feeding Table T shows that the cow's 
milk has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 3.7. In skim-milk the ratio is 1 to 2.-1. 
Skim-milk contains all the elements of full milk excepting the fat, and 
we can in a measure make up for this with cheaper substitutes. Proba- 
bly the best simple substitute is flaxseed, which should be boiled until 
reduced to a jelly, and a small quantity given at each feed stirred in the 
milk. Oil meal is cheaper than flaxseed, more easily obtained, and 
serves practically the same purpose. Keep each calf tied by itself with 
a halter in comfortable quarters, with a rack in front for hay and a box 
for meal. For feed use either whole or ground oats, bran, oil meal, or 
a mixture of these. By the third week have a mixture containing the 
grain feed at hand, and as soon as the calf is through with the milk slip 
a little meal into its mouth. It soon learns the taste, and, following 
that instinct so strongly marked, takes kindly to the meal in the box, 
and in a few days eats with the regularity of an old animal. Have the 
meal boxes movable, and place the meal in them sparingly, emptying 
out all that remains before each feeding time. Change the kind or 
combination of grain if the calves seem to tire with what is given. 

A prime requisite to success in calf feeding is regularity; let the 
calves be fed at the same time and in the same order each day. Next 
to regularity, regard the amount of milk fed. While 15 to 18 pounds 
of full milk is a ration, with skim -milk from 18 to 24 pounds may be 



454 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

fed, depending on the ability of the calf to assimilate its food. More 
skim-milk calves are killed by overfeeding - than underfeeding. Milk 
should be fed at blood temperature, say 98° to 100° F., and a thermom- 
eter should be used in ascertaining the temperature. The feeding- 
pail should be kept scrupulously clean by scalding once a day, a pre- 
caution often neglected. 

Scouring, the bane of calf rearing, usually indicates indigestion, and 
is brought on by overfeeding, irregular feeding, giving the feed too 
cold, or the animal getting chilled or wet. Prevention of disease by 
rational feeding and systematic good care is far better than poor care 
and unskillful feeding, followed by attention and solicitude in giving 
medicines. To check indigestion we have found the use of a table- 
spoonful of limewater in each feed very satisfactory. Successful man- 
agement of the calf lies at the very foundation of the stock business, 
and calls for regularity of attendance, discerning at once all the little 
wants of the animal, and a generous disposition to supply every need 
as soon as apparent. 

FEED AND CAItE OF YOUNG STOCK. 

With well-bred calves, thrifty and sleek coated, the foundation of a 
good herd is laid. Though the subject will be discussed more fully 
later on, it is well to remind the reader at this point that gain is never 
so cheaply made as with the calf, and that for financial reasons if no 
other it should be pushed ahead as rapidly as possible. Our table of 
feeding stuffs shows that milk contains a large amount of protein or 
muscle-making food, and it also contains a large amount of ash for build- 
ing up bone. From the composition of milk, nature's food for the 
young animal, we get a hint at the formation of rations for young ani- 
mals. Pasture grass has a nutritive ratio by the table of 1 : 4 . 9, so that 
it is also high in muscle elements. But nature put a large amount of 
fat in cow's milk, and calves reared on full milk show a very consider- 
able development of fat. They should not grow poorer after weaning 
time, but the first fat, as the stockman calls it, should be kept on all 
representatives of the beef breeds, whether intended for breeding pur- 
poses or for beef. This can be accomplished with oil meal and corn; a 
little oats will do no harm. Counteract the tendency of the grain foods 
to making a rigid dry flesh, by using roots or silage, which, combined 
with grain, make the animal growthy while keeping it plenty fat. For 
roughage use cornstalks, clover or alfalfa hay. The dairy calf should 
never be allowed to become as fat as those intended for beef, yet this 
does not mean that it should be the sorry representative that we often 
find it. Very little corn should be used in its ration, and the propor- 
tion of oil meal stinted, while oats should form a larger part of the 
ration. This, with silage or roots and plenty of roughage in winter 
and pasture in summer, will give animals of the desired quality. Calves, 
like colts, pass through a period of growth when they are not particu- 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OP CATTLE. 455 

larly attractive, nor do they need very close attention at this time; 
yet the watchful eye of the master should note the development from 
day to day and see that all the wants are fully supplied. 

STEER FEEDING — PASTURES. 

There are two theories in regard to the proper time of turning steers 
to pasture, each of which seems based on good reasons. That gener- 
ally advocated by agricultural writers is to keep the stock in the barn 
and yard on the same food as given during the winter months until the 
pastures are well along and able to furnish an abundance of nutritious 
grass. Often when stock are turned on such pastures the ration of the 
feeding stable is cut off at once. The other system is to turn to pasture 
just as the grass begins to shoot, when the sparse blades are watery 
and furnish very little nutriment. The lack of food in the pasture 
forces the stock to rely mainly on what is obtained in the stable to sat- 
isfy hunger. The first grass is washy and has little nutriment, but has 
its effect on the digestive system and gradually prepares the animal for 
the change from grain to pasture. It is a fact that stock often shrink 
badly when changed from stable to pasture, and I suspect the practice 
of early turning to grass, at the same time keeping up heavy stable 
feeding, is better than holding the cattle longer and then turning at 
once to full pastures. If stock is turned to pasture early, and in any 
event, let food in abundance be offered them at the stable. It is trouble- 
some to bring them back to the barn each night, yet it is little atten- 
tions like these that pay. 

The question of large or small pastures is one frequently discussed. 
I believe the majority of experienced American feeders are in favor of 
single ranges rather than numerous small pasture lots. The grasses, 
both in variety and quality, are never quite the same all over a large 
pasture, and cattle soon learn to detect the little differences and satisfy 
their like for variety by ranging from one sort of feed to the other. 
The habit of the herd in large pastures becomes very regular; they 
will be found in the morning on this side in the valley, a little later 
over on the hillside, while at noon they are resting at still a third point. 
Continuity of habit in grazing and feeding conduces to comfort and 
quiet, and are of great importance to profitable returns. Where the 
pastures are cut up into several lots of course the fresh bite which 
comes with changing from one lot to another is tempting, but this leads 
to irregularity and unrest. 

GAINS OF STEERS ON PASTURE. 

Prof. Morrow, of the Illinois Experiment Station, has made some inter- 
esting studies on this point. He reports the gain per head of steers 
maintained wholly on pasture during the season from May 1 to Novem- 
ber 1 to be as follows: 



456 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Yearlings. 

Pounds. 

4 head of steers showed an average gain of 332 

10 head of steers showed an average gain of : . . 285 

2 head of steers showed an average gain of 440 

Two-year-olds. 

Pounds. 

7 head of steers showed an average gain of 466 

8 head of steers showed an average gain of 384 

4 head of steers showed an average gain of 406 

I think these figures are very satisfactory, and probably up to the 
average which can be attained on good pastures by grade steers in fair 
flesh when turned to pasture. No doubt animals in thin flesh when 
turned to pasture will show larger gains. An interesting phase of the 
same question is the amount of gain made by steers from an acre of pas- 
ture land. In different trials Prof. Morrow obtained returns of 246. 206, 
and 138 pounds of increase live weight per acre from steers on pasture. 
The average of these gains shows that when beef brings a reasonable 
price such pastures have a value of something like $100 per acre. 

FEEDING GRAIN TO STEERS ON PASTURE. 

J. D. Gillett, Illinois's great stock-feeder of the last generation, used 
to say that he could not afford to fatten steers in winter. His cattle 
were mostly summer and fall fed, getting their grain from boxes in the 
pasture fields. Unfortunately we have little accurate data at command 
to show the value of grain feeding on pastures. Prof. Morrow has made 
several trials, but the results so far do not seem to confirm the state- 
ments of Gillett and others. Prof. Morrow sums up the experience at 
the Illinois Station as follows : 

The results from two years' trial indicate that a grain ration to young steers on 
good pastures is not usually profitable. The value of the increase in weight by the 
grain-fed steers over those having grass only will hardly repay the cost of food and 
labor. The increased value of the animals from earlier maturity and better quality 
may make grain feeding profitable. 

While his results to date do not show very favorably for grain feed- 
ing on good pasture not overstocked, he strongly advocates the addi- 
tion of grain or other feed before grass fails in the fall. 

INDIAN CORN FOR STEER FEEDING. 

Corn is the great fattening food of America, and no other grain is so 
cheaply raised or equals it in the economical production of wholesome 
meat. Our stockmen long ago learned this fact, and have used corn so 
exclusively that not always the most economical results have been 
obtained. With the almost continual plethora of grain careless habits 
have been acquired in handling the crop, some of which will cost much 
to unlearn. The roughage of the corn crop, the stalk portion, has been 
largely wasted through ignorance of its real value and how it should 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 



457 



be fed to stock. Dr. Arinsby has made some very careful studies of 
the corn plant, and some of his results are given in Tables IV aud V. 
Table IT shows the proportion of ears to stover. By stover is meant 
all of the dried corn plant less the ear, or practically shock corn with the 
ears removed. 

Table IV. — Showing the actual weights of ear com and stover at four experiment 

stations. 



Name of experiment station. 



Ears. 



Stover. 



New Jersey. .. 
Connecticut .. 

Wisconsin 

Pennsylvania. 

Average 



Pounds. 
4,774 
4, 216 
4,941 
3,727 



Pounds. 
4,041 
4,360 
4,490 
2,460 



4,415 



3,1 



We see that nearly half of the weight of a corn crop is in the stalk, 
husk, leaf, and top. In Table Y is given the digestible portions of 
the ear and stover. 

Table V. — Showing the yield of digestible matter in pounds per acre. 



Constituents. 


Ears. 


Stover. 


Total 
crop. 




Pounds. 

244 

2,301 

125 


Pounds. 

83 

1,473 

22 


Pounds. 






Fat 








Total 


2,670 


1,578 


4,248 





This table shows that of the digestible matter in an acre of corn 2,670 
pounds are in the ears and 1,578 pounds are in the stover or cornstalks. 
On many farms the stover is almost wholly wasted, or at least but poorly 
saved and carelessly fed. Can the farmers of the Mississippi Valley 
much longer afford to waste 37 per cent of this great cro-p after they 
have gone to the expense of producing it? Of course I do not hold 
that all the cornstalks produced in a corn crop can be fed to fattening 
steers, for this would mean the consumption of too much roughage in 
proportion to grain. But there are always on the farm horses, cows, and 
young things that can well be maintained on the surplus stover of the 
corn crop. That farm which can not utilize all of the cornstalks pro- 
duced should change its management. 

I do not think the heavy corn-feeding commonly practiced at the 
West nearly so wasteful as many have thought. The corn is fed with 
a prodigal hand, but this does not necessarily mean a heavy loss when 
the cost of material and the economical conditions under which it is 
often fed are all duly considered. But now that the price of beef is 
lower and the price of land and corn rising, it is time for a careful 
study of the problem in order to save as much as possible. Corn may 



458 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



be fed to a steer as the only grain for a couple of months, with excellent 
returns, even without grinding or shelling, providing the grain is not 
too hard or the ears too large and good shotes follow the steers to 
utilize the waste corn in the droppings. But steers can not be fully- 
fattened on corn alone with profit, for the concentrated grain soon burns 
out the digestive tract and the steer conies to make poor use of his 
food. Whole corn may be fed early in the period, but generally, and 
always later on, it should be crushed or ground into meal. I think 
crushed corn or coarsely ground meal will be found preferable to that 
which is finely ground. In all cases where much meal is fed care is 
needed lest the animal get off feed. Some oil meal or bran should be 
fed to lighten the ration, starting with 1 pound of oil meal and gradually 
increasing the amount until, toward the close of the period, as much as 
5 pounds may be fed. In the same manner from 2 to 8 pounds of bran 
may be fed. The effect of oil meal is to give good handling qualities and 
a fine, glossy coat of hair, besides affording much real nutriment. Bran 
is likewise cooling and lightens the heavy corn very materially. Boots 
or silage have much the same effect. I know objections will be raised 
that if all feeders were to use oil meal there would not be enough to go 
round, but why be solicitous when in 1890 we shipped $8,000,000 worth 
of oil meal to the feeders of the Old World? 

With the grain there must always be fed coarse feeds in order to 
properly distend the rumen, and nothing is better for this purpose than 
good corn stover. Most stockmen know how satisfactory shocked corn 
is for steers. That portion of the stover not needed for the steers 
should be given to other farm stock. 

BALANCED RATIONS. 

In order to show what sort of a ration a steer should receive if fed 
according to the German standard, two rations are here presented 
which conform fairly near to the requirements. The first is one which 
may well be used in the corn belt where corn is cheap and oil meal 
close at hand. The second presents more variety, and has silage and 
cotton-seed meal for two of its constituents. 

Table VI. — Showing rations for fattening steers. 
RATION NO. I. 



Character of rations. 



Required by standard. . 

Corn fodder, 8 pounds. . 
Clover hay, 2 pounds. . . 
Corn (maize), 14 pounds 
Oil meal, o. p., 4 pounds 

Total 



Organic 
matter. 



27.0 



4.41 

1.57 

12.31 

3.41 



Digestible- 



Protein. Carbohy- Ether 
drates. extract. 



21. G9 



2.50 



.22 

.13 

.98 

1.13 



2.46 



2.36 
.70 



13.23 



.50 



.08 
.03 
.55 
.28 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 



459 



Table VI. — Showing rations for fattening steers — Continued. 
RATION NO. II. 



Character of rations. 



Organic 
matter. 



Digestible — 



Protein. Carbohy- Ether 
drates. extract. 



Corn silage, 30 pounds 

Oat straw, 5 pounds 

Holler bran, 10 pounds 

Corn and cob meal, 4 pounds 
Cotton-seed meal, 2 pounds . 

Total 



5.85 
4.29 
8.24 
3.34 
1.69 



.36 

.08 

1.26 

.26 

.74 



3.54 
2.09 
4.41 
2.25 
.36 



.18 
.04 
.29 
.12 
.25 



23.41 



2.70 



12.65 



In both tables there is less organic; matter than called for by the 
standard, bnt this is not important. The carbohydrates are less than 
the standard, but this lack is nearly made up by the excess of ether ex- 
tract or fat. 

SILAGE FOR STEER FEEDING. 

The British farmer leads the world in the perfection of farm stock, 
and while this may not be altogether due to his system of feeding, yet 
that must be a large factor. Under the English system farm animals 
do not go for any long period on dry food. The cattle go to pasture 
early and remain late, and when in the stable or yard still have succu- 
lent feed in the shape of roots. How different the American system, 
where our cattle are on pasture a few months in summer and then 
return to the stable and yard to subsist on dry food of limited variety 
for nearly six months! It may not pay in many cases for farmers to 
grow roots for stock, but we have a means of providing a cheap sub- 
stitute for turnips and mangolds m corn silage. I do not at this time 
wish to discuss the relative merits of silage and roots, but rather to 
plead for more general introduction of the silo with those farmers who 
do not take kindly to root culture. The wonderful development of 
machinery for planting and cultivating corn enables the farmer to pro- 
duce a large amount of excellent feed with very little labor. If by 
some means the juicy, tender stalks can be carried over to winter we 
have a very fair substitute in cheap form for the root crop, and this is 
accomplished by the silo, which gives us at a very small cost a succu- 
lent food, palatable to horses, cattle, and sheep. 

The use of silage came through dairymen, and to this day the steer- 
feeder seems to hold that silage is only suitable for dairy cows and too 
sloppy and sour for beef-making. Gradually the prejudice is breaking 
away and beef-makers as well as butter-makers are beginning to appre- 
ciate the silo. 

SILAGE COMPARED WITH ROOTS FOR STEER FEEDING. 

The great silage material is Indian corn. In the corn belt from 10 to 
20 tons of green fodder may be raised on an acre of fertile land. If 
we put the average crop at 15 tons as it goes into the silo, it will feed 



460 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

out 12 or 13 tons. When corn is planted to yield the material above 
stated the stalks stand thin enough to produce a good many ears, or 
nubbins. To show the value of corn silage for steer-feeding I present 
the results just published by Prof. Shaw, of the Ontario Agricultural 
College, where six grade Shorthorn steers were fed in three groups of 
two each. 

To Group I was fed all the steers would eat of corn silage, with about 
12 pounds of corn meal. 

To Group II were fed 30 pounds of silage per day, about 12 of meal, 
and all the cut hay the steers would eat. 

To Group III were fed 45 pounds of sliced roots, and about 12 pounds 
of meal, with all the cut hay they would eat. The hay was timothy 
and clover, the roots turnips and mangolds, and the meal consisted of 
equal weights of ground pease, barley, and oats. The hay was chaffed 
and the food mixed at the time of feeding and given in three feeds per 
day. 

The food actually consumed per animal per day was as follows : 

_ T . ( 57.47 pounds silage. 
Grou P I * I 11.72 pounds meal. 

( 30.6 pounds silage. 
Group II < 11.13 pounds meal. 

' 9.3 pounds hay. 

! 43.07 pounds roots. 
11.12 pounds meal. 
11.22 pounds hay. 

The following table shows the results of the trial, beginning Decem- 
ber 1, 1890, and lasting 146 days. 

Table VII. — Showing results of steer-feeding trials at Ontario Agricultural College. 



Weight at commencement 

Gain of two steers 140 days 

Average gain per steer. 

Average gain per steer per day 



Group I. Group II. Group III. 
(2 steers.) (2 steers.) (2 steers.) 



Poiinds. 

2, 789. 00 

555. 00 

277. 00 

1.90 



Pounds. 

2735. 00 

448.00 

224. 00 

1.53 



Pounds. 

2672. 00 

537. 00 

268. 00 

1.84 



Prof. Shaw places the following value on the feeds : 

Oats 24| cents per bushel. 

Peas 47 cents per bushel. 

Barley 38 cents per bushel. 

Sliced roots 8 cents per bushel. 

Cut hay $5. 00 per ton. 

Corn silage 1. 75 per ton. 

Six cents per bushel allowed for grinding grain. 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 

Tlie financial results are presented in the following table: 

Table VIIT. — Showing financial results. 



461 



Value of animals and cost of feed. 


Group I. 


Group II. 


Group III. 




$111. 56 

42.92 

6.08 


$109. 40 

41.45 

6.08 


$106. 88 
51.75 
6.08 










183. 93 
13.14 


175. 10 
13.14 






13.14 






197. 07 
36.51 
22.70 


188.24 
31.31 
20.00 


189. 67 






15.20 



At the commencement the steers were valued at 4 cents per pound, 
live weight, and were worth 5£ cents per pound at the close. It will 
be seen that the heaviest gain per day was made by the steers receiv- 
ing silage, and further that they returned the best per cent on the 
investment; the root-fed steers gave the poorest returns of the three 
groups. 

At this station we have fed silage to steers with most excellent 
results. In one trial four 2 and 3-year old steers were fed corn silage 
alone and made a gain of 222 pounds in thirty-six days, or LJ pounds 
per day. It required 3,558 pounds of silage to make 100 pounds of 
gain. Four steers from the same lot were fed silage with a mixture of 
corn and bran, when it was found that 654 pounds of corn silage with 
394 pounds of corn and 180 of bran produced 100 pounds of gain. Four 
shotes running with the steers were fed only 92 pounds of corn to make 
a gain of 100 pounds, showing that they must have received most of 
their food from the droppings. Let the feeder place any reasonable 
value he may choose on the silage in these two trials and he will see 
that we produced 100 pounds of gain at a very small cost. The objec- 
tion to our experiment is that the steers were only fed silage forty- three 
days, the first week not being counted, but further feeding with a heavy 
grain ration and hay showed that the gains from the silage were well 
held when the animals were placed on dry feed. 

This brings me to the point I desire to make in favor of silage for 
steer feeding. As with roots, silage makes the carcass watery and 
soft to the touch. Some have considered this a disadvantage, but is it 
not a desirable condition in the fattening steer? Corn and roughage 
produce a hard, dry carcass, and corn burns out the digestive track 
in the shortest possible time. With silage and roots digestion certainly 
must be more nearly normal and its profitable action longer continued. 
The tissues of the body are juicy and the whole system must be in just 
that condition which permits rapid fattening. While believing in a 
large use of silage in the preliminary stages and its continuance during 
most of the fattening period, I would recommend that gradually more 
dry food be substituted as the period advances, in order that the flesh 



462 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



may become more solid. Used in this way I believe silage will become 
an important aid in steer feeding m many sections of the country. 
Eesults from Canada, Wisconsin, and Texas, given in this chapter, 
show the broad adaptation of this food for stock-feeding purposes. 

BEEF-MAKING AT THE SOUTH. 

Few realise the possibilities of beef production over a large portion 
of the South. For centuries the study there has been toward cotton 
production, which demands scrupulously clean culture ; grass has been 
despised and considered a pest, but now it has overrun some of the old 
plantations, and while restoring the soil to something like its former 
fertility, is giving good annual yields of nutritious food for cattle. 
Many a cotton plantation can be made to return in Bermuda grass, 
Johnson grass, or Japan clover an amount of feed that would surprise 
even a northern stockman. Equally important with the growth of 
grasses is the enormous production of cotton seed, which furnishes a 
most nutritious feed. For every pound of cotton fiber there are about 
2 pounds of cotton seed. A ton of cotton seed yields about 35 gallons 
of oil and 750 pounds of cotton-seed meal, besides nearly a thousand 
pounds of cotton-seed hulls. The cotton seed itself, when boiled, and 
the cotton- seed meal are valuable stock foods, and recently even the 
hulls have been found to possess considerable feeding value, proving a 
very good substitute for hay. The following table shows results 
obtained by Prof. Grulleyin feeding cotton-seed meal at the experiment 
station. 

Table IX. — Showing feed consumed for 100 pounds gain in weight at the Texas Experi- 
ment Station. 



So. of steers. 


Days of 
experi- 
ment. 


Average 
weight at 
beginning. 


Cotton 
seed, raw. 


Cotton 

seed, 

cooked. 


Cotton- 
seed hulls. 


Cotton 
meal. 


6 


90 
90 
90 
90 
90 
90 
79 
79 
79 


Pounds. 
755 
737 
780 
713 
785 
725 
671 
662 
636 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 
417 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


4 






217 


3 






561 
759 
724 
579 
365 


228 


4 






259 


4 






178 


8 






247 


10 






154 


9 


194 






3 


147 















!Nb. of steers. 


Corn in ear. 


Corn and cob 
meal. 


Silage. 


Hay. 


Cost per 

100 pounds 

gain. 


6 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 
1,230 
1,676 
595 


Pounds. 
218 


$2.70 


4 






3 










4 








3 72 


4 




212 




- 


4 09 


8 






264 




10 






630 
411 


2 72 




219 
519 




167 
254 




3 




3 86 











THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 463 

The values placed on the food articles in this table are as follows : 

Cotton seed, raw or cooked per ton . . $7. 00 

Cotton-seed hulls do 3.00 

Cotton-seed meal do 20. 00 

Corn and cob meal per bushel . . .40 

Mixed bay per ton . . 6. 00 

These gains are very satisfactory, and I donbt if iD any other section 
of the United States a pound of beef can be produced at so low a cost 
for food as is here given. 

FOOD REQUIRED FOR MAKING A POUND OF BEEF. 

Our experiment stations are helping in the matter of determining the 
amount of food required to produce a pound of beef, and the results 
are proving most interesting reading. In the following table is sum- 
marized the amount of food required to produce 100 pounds of gain, 
live weight, with calves and steers at different ages. It will bear care- 
ful study. 



464 



DISEASES OF CATTLE. 



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THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 465 

The table shows results obtained at the Wisconsin station with skiin- 
milk fed to Jersey and Holstein calves. At the Ontario College calves 
representing six different breeds were fed on full milk at first, the trial 
lasting a year. The Michigan experiments are the most complete, and 
cover three trials with two lots of steers representing six different 
breeds in the first trial and five in the last. In the Wisconsin experi- 
ments the grain consisted of oats, bran, and oil-meal. At Michigan it 
was wheat bran, oats, corn, and some oil meal. At the Ontario College 
peas, oats, wheat screenings, bran, and oil-cake were fed. 

INCREASED FOOD REQUIRED WITH INCREASED WEIGHT. 

I ask the reader to carefully review the results obtained at the Mich- 
igan station and note the steady increase in the amount of food required 
to produce 100 pounds of gain. With so many animals on trial, repre- 
senting different breeds and long feeding periods, these results can not 
be accidental, but must represent some rule of nature of great impor- 
tance to the feeder. As we have learned from the second table in this 
chapter, an animal requires a very considerable amount of food for mere 
maintenance of the body, so that, as the body weight increases, more 
and more feed must be given for its mere maintenance, and only from 
the excess which the animal may consume comes the increased weight. 
At first the young animal is able to eat and digest much more than is 
required for its maintenance, and out of the large excess a rapid 
increase in weight results. Though the total amount of food consumed 
increases very considerably with the age of the animal, yet gradually 
the amount required creeps up until finally all is required for mere main- 
tenance of the body, and there is no gain in weight for profit to the 
feeder. 

EARLY MATURITY A NECESSITY. 

The facts just noted lead to the last suggestion in regard to steer- 
feeding. Some of my readers will recall a period when it was not con- 
sidered well to fatten a steer until he was 5 years old. A much larger 
number will recall the early exhibits of cattle at the Chicago Fat Stock 
Show, where prizes were offered for big steers. The long-legged, raw- 
boned creatures that competed for premiums in those days are now 
almost a thing of the past, but there is still room for large improve- 
ment. Early maturity has worked wonders in pork-making, and is 
more slowly but surely accomplishing equally striking results with beef 
cattle. While in parts of the Old World hogs are not fattened until 
2 or 3 years old, on thousands of American farms in the corn belt April- 
born pigs are started for Chicago in November. Prices are now so low 
for beef that cattle must be quickly turned and every pound of food 
made to do its utmost. What can be accomplished in the way of early 
maturity is illustrated by results obtained by Mr. W. A. Harris, of 
Linwood, Kans., who reports, in the Breeders' Gazette, his experience 
24G97 30 



466 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

with "baby" beef. He feeds pure-bred and grade Shorthorn calves 
coming in December, January, and February until the following Decem- 
ber, when they average 11 months old. These calves generally had 
most of their dams' milk until 6 or 7 months old and Mr. Harris figures 
that they each consumed : 

20 bushels of corn, worth $5.00 

1,000 pounds bran, worth 6.00 

300 pounds oil-meal, worth 3.00 

Total cost of grain 14 00 

In addition they had pasture and what hay they would eat, which, 
together, he estimates at $4. These calves weighed from 910 to 920 
pounds each at eleven months, and brought from $3.80 to $5.00 per hun- 
dred, which returns are certainly satisfactory, while yearlings have but 
held their own and required the space and feed of nearly two calves 
during the additional twelve months, to say nothing of interest and 
accidents. While Mr. Harris' figures doubtless represent the extreme 
limit in the direction of early maturity, and it is probable that many 
will not dare to attempt to sell beef at twelve months old, there is no 
good argument for not making a vigorous effort to steadily reduce the 
age at which steers are marketed. The first requisite is good breeding, 
for without a good calf further effort is of little avail. There is a gross 
error abroad which it seems almost impossible to down, and that is the 
idea that blooded stock can live on less food than the common cattle of 
the country. The truth is that such animals, being more artificial, really 
require better care and more abundant food. Their point of vantage is 
their ability to consume a large amount of food, making the most of it 
and putting it on the most valuable parts of the body in the shape of 
meat ; further, they do this at an early age, long before native cattle 
have reached anything like maturity. Improved stock means an im- 
proved feeder with an intelligent understanding and good corn cribs. 
Having good stock, feed liberally. I know of no greater crime toward 
our stock in this country than parsimonious feeding. It is even more 
common to hear men boast of how little their cattle have wintered on 
than how much they have been fed and what large gains they have 
made. There must be a great change in this particular before genuine 
improvement comes. 

THE DAIRY COW — INTRODUCTORY. 

Enormous as is the dairy industry of this country, its continued 
growth for some time yet seems almost certain, for the reason that our 
progress has been largely in the direction of an improved product 
rather than a mere increase in gross output. Low prices for beef cat- 
tle have been brought on in no small measure through flooding the mar- 
ket with lean or half-fatted steers, which must be consumed in some 
way and drag down the prices of well-fatted representatives of their 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 467 

kind. The spread of the creamery system does not necessarily mean 
that more cows are used in the production of butter, but rather that 
more butter of a uniformly high quality is being made to take the place 
of dairy butter, much of which has a doubtful reputation. Increased 
consumption naturally follows improvement in quality, and with more 
good butter on the market more is consumed, and for this reason more 
than any other I think the prices of dairy products have held up so well 
in the past. 

But dairying will continue for another reason, which lies at the foun- 
dation of stock-feeding, and this is because the cow gives a larger return 
for her food than does the steer. I doubt if many of my readers have 
ever reflected upon just this phase of the question, but it is one of large 
importance and will some day be carefully studied. 

In Table III we have given the ration of a dairy cow weighing 1,000 
pounds, as follows : 

Pounds. 

Corn fodder 14 

Clover hay 6 

Bran 5 

Corn meal 5 

Cotton-seed meal 2 

From this ration we may suppose a good dairy cow will yield about 
25 pounds of average milk. Supposing we feed the same ration to a 
steer weighing 1,000 pounds. I am sure the majority of feeders will 
agree that 2 pounds of increase, live weight, will be a fair return for 
this amount of food. Lawes and Gilbert, of England, made careful 
analyses of the carcasses of ninety-eight oxen to determine the charac- 
ter of their increase while fattening, which they found to be as follows: 

Per cent. 

Ash 1.47 

Protein (dry lean meat) 7. 69 

Fat 66. 2 

Water 24.6 

Let us place the food constituents of a day's increase of 2 pounds 
live weight of the fattening steer beside what is contained in 25 
pounds of average cow's milk : 

Table XI. — Showing the returns from a dairy cow and a fattening steer for one day. 





Returns from — 


Constituents. 


Twenty- 
five pounds 
cow's milk. 


Two pounds 
increase 
in steer. 


Ash 


Per cent. 
0.17 
0.90 
0.90 
1.20 


Per cent. 






Fat 












Total 


3.17 


1 48 







468 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

Our dairy cow has given nearly six times as much ash,, six times as 
much protein, and 70 per cent as much fat as is returned by the steer, 
with 1.2 pounds of milk sugar, against which the steer has nothing to 
show. If we reduce this milk sugar to its fat equivalent by dividing 
by 2.2 we find the milk sugar given by the cow to be worth for food 
purposes 0.56 of a pound of fat. All of the constituents of the milk are 
digestible and furnish the best of human food, while much of the 
increase of the steer is hardly available for food as we commonly use 
meat. At the present time, when coarse feeds and grains are raised in 
such enormous quantities in America, we are more or less indifferent to 
the relative economy of the cow and steer in condensing gross hay and 
the coarse grains into human food, but when population becomes great 
the steer must give way before the cow in the contest of economically 
producing food for men. 

THE ART OF DAIRYING BASED ON THE MATERNITY OF THE COW. 

Nature's purpose in storing fat beneath the skin and between the 
muscular tissues of the animal body is to lay up heat and energy 
material against the time of need. This process goes on rapidly at 
first, but after a time the system seems gorged, and further storage is 
secured at a high cost for feed. How different with the dairy cow. 
Food given at night, for instance, is digested and elaborated into milk 
ready for the calf in the morning, and is at once disposed of instead of 
being stored up and added to the body to be utilized and carried about, 
and it is for this reason, probably, that the cow surpasses the steer in 
the economical manufacture of human food. 

It is the appropriation by man of food material intended for the calf 
that makes possible the great art of dairying. Under the stimulus of 
good feed and long selection our dairy cow produces much more milk 
than is needed for the calf, and has become more or less an artificial 
creature. 

The basis of the whole dairy system is the maternity of the cow, and 
the successful management of a dairy depends upon fully comprehend- 
ing and intelligently following out this idea. To ex-Governor W. D. 
Hoard, of Wisconsin, belongs much credit for bringing this view to the 
attention of our dairymen, and the effort has been of untold value, for 
no one can fairly consider the problem as thus stated without regard- 
ing the dairy cow in a new light. 

SHELTER. 

I have spoken favorably of open sheds for steer feeding, urging that 
with his load of fat and stomach filled with heating grain this creature 
has a better appetite and is more comfortable with the freedom of such 
quarters than in the average stable. For reasons just shown our dairy 
cow is under very different conditions and shrinks from cold and expo- 



TIIE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 469 

sure. Any other animal on the farm Avill stand more exposure without 
suffering than a cow giving a large llow of milk. 

Close confinement in the barn during the whole winter is a subject 
now being much discussed by dairymen, and some argue for the prac- 
tice, reporting favorable results. I can not believe that it is well to 
keep cows confined for four or five months in one spot. The dread dis- 
ease tuberculosis has already found a lodgment in too many herds 
scattered over the country, and its spread is something greatly to be 
feared. It is not unreasonable to hold that dairy stock confined gener- 
ation after generation in the stable, out of the sunlight and fresh air, 
for many months each year, must, after a time, become more suscepti- 
ble to this disease than where more freedom is allowed. 

' PROF. ROBERTS'S SYSTEM. 

It is not well to turn stock out into the bleak winter storm to obtain 
fresh air and exercise, but can we not modify our present system so that 
the cows shall have the freedom and avoid the exposure? At Cornell 
University Prof. Eoberts has for years followed a plan which seems of 
great value in its teachings to the dairymen of this country. The cows 
stand in stanchions while feeding and being milked, but immediately 
afterward they are turned into a large covered yard where they are free 
to stand or lie, entirely unconfined except by the walls, so that they 
have a dining room and living room, each adapted to its purpose. The 
accumulations from the horse stable are spread over the floor of the 
covered yard where the cows spend most of their time, and is cov- 
ered with straw and land plaster, used to prevent odors arising. 
This perfect system of saving manure should alone pay in a few years 
for the cost of the additional room required. The stable can be reduced 
to the smallest size compatible with holding the cows and rjerniitting 
milking and feeding, and can be kept scrupulously clean and thoroughly 
aired, since the cows are in it but a few hours each day. Under these 
conditions the cows should come to their meals each day with the best 
of appetites and return to their larger quarters to ruminate in com- 
fort. Where dairymen are buying and selling cows constantly, using 
each animal but a few years, close confinement and little attention to 
the health of the herd may not bring unfortunate results, but there are 
many persons breeding choice herds of dairy animals who wish to take 
as little risk as possible from weak constitutions or inducing tubercu- 
losis. To such I commend a careful review of the Cornell system. 

REGULARITY AND KINDNESS IN THE DAIRY. 

The dairy cow is the creature of habits, as well as most other animals, 
and is very susceptible to favorable or unfavorable influences. At this 
station a record of every milking is kept, and in looking over it we can 
tell when Sunday comes by the smaller yield on that day. Our men 



470 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

milk a little later Sunday morning and a little, earlier at night, prob- 
ably hurrying the operation, and the cows resent the treatment by 
a somewhat smaller yield of milk. Dr. Babcock has found that a new 
milker will get less milk from a cow at first than the milker to which 
she is accustomed. Milking the teats in a different order also affects 
the percentage of fat in the milk and the amount of milk given. Irreg- 
ularity in the order of feeding must also have an unfavorable effect. 

Probably a very considerable portion of the milk is elaborated by the 
cow during the time of milking, and if this is true it is not difficult to 
understand that the cow should be in perfect comfort of mind and body 
during this time. The dairyman should follow a regular system in his 
feeding operations, supplying the same kinds of food at the same time 
in the day and in the same order. Milking should be performed with 
regularity, the cows being milked in the same order and so far as pos- 
sible by the same milkers. 

RECORDING AND ANALYZING MILK. 

We have found nothing more helpful for its cost than the use of scales 
in the dairy barn for recording the milk yield of each cow at each milk- 
ing. A sheet of manila paper can be quickly ruled with a lead pencil 
and the names of the cows placed at the head, with the days of the 
week along the side of the sheet. These sheets can be made to hold 
either a week's or a month's record, the former being preferable, we 
think. A pair of spring balances, tested occasionally, prove very sat- 
isfactory for weighing the milk. The fraction of a minute is all the 
time required for the milker to get the weight and enter it upon the 
record sheet. The effect is most salutary aud conduces to better milk- 
ing and more kindly care for the cows, since each milker is desirous of 
making a good record. 

The fat contained in the milk practically measures its market value, 
and the milk of different cows varies so in the fat content that the 
dairyman really knows very little of what his cows are doing when he 
goes no farther than weighing the milk. Churn tests to learn how 
much butter a cow can make have been recommended, but to set the 
milk of each cow separately and churn it carefully involves so much 
labor that this system is hardly practical. In the Babcock test the 
dairymen now have a simple, rapid, and inexpensive means of deter- 
mining just how much fat there is in the milk of each cow in the herd. 
The dairyman who will use this test will be surprised at what it reveals. 
Some cows that were supposed to be among the best are found to yield 
milk poor in butter fat; while others, giving less quantity, may be 
leaders in the total amount of fat produced. With the scales to show 
how much milk the cow gives during the year, and the" Babcock test 
for analyzing the milk and determining the percentage of fat from time 
to time, the dairyman is in position to know just what his herd is doing, 
and can dispose of unprofitable animals and keep the good ones and 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 471 

their progeny. At last he has a means of measuring' the true worth 
of each cow in the herd, and there is no longer any excuse for keeping 
and feeding unprofitable animals. 

THE QUALITY OF MILK A RESULT OF BREED RATHER THAN OF FEED. 

The opiuion generally prevails among dairymen that the quality of 
milk is directly due to the feed supplied, most of them holding that 
certain feeds will make milk rich in fat, while other feeds will make it 
watery and thin. The results of carefully conducted trials in order to 
study the effects of feed on the quality of milk have generally shown 
that the composition is quite regular and little modified by the feed, 
though the total yield of milk of course varies greatly with the feed. 
I think in this particular case popular opinion is largely in error. With 
certain kinds of feeds the dairyman does increase the amount of 
butter he receives, but it is because the total amount of milk has been 
increased and not because a higher per cent of fat has been put into 
the milk. 

And when we give the matter due thought the position here 
advanced seems the tenable one. We do not expect a fruit tree to 
change its variety of fruit through good or poor feeding. A Baldwin 
apple tree always produces Baldwin apples, though the number may 
be increased or diminished by the treatment of the tree. If feed were 
the controlling factor, the strong characteristics of the dairy breeds 
would all disappear with the art of the feeder. Is it not more reason- 
able to hold that we must breed for quality and feed for quantity? 

PREPARATIONS OF FOODS AND METHODS OF FEEDING. 

We know that a horse standing idle in the stable in winter will live 
on oat straw and a little grain and keep in very fair condition. His 
digestive powers are untaxed and utilize the coarse material without 
difficulty, but as soon as the hard work of spring comes on he not only 
needs a good deal more feed, but, if very hard worked, the hay should 
be chaffed and the grain. ground. The labor he performs has made 
such demands upon the body that , there is not energy enough left to 
work over the coarse food and get enough out of- it to make up the 
increased wastes of the body. We should always remember that our 
dairy cow is really performing a very large amount of work when giving 
a large flow of milk, and her food should not only be in large quantity 
but put in the best form possible for easy digestion. Even with an 
abundance of food carefully prepared, so strong are the inherent ten- 
dencies toward milk-giving that many cows will take from their own 
bodies a large amount of fat stored there and put it into the milk. If 
we will only come to regard our good dairy cows as working very hard 
while giving milk we are in position to treat them properly. 



472 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

THE FEED-CUTTER. 

There should be a good feed-cutter on every dairy farm, useful for 
silo filling in the fall and for chaffing feed in the winter. All cornstalks 
should be put through this machine, for then they are in better condi- 
tion for feeding, and the coarser portions left uneaten are in good form 
for bedding and the manure heap. Long cornstalks are a nuisance in 
a feeding manger, worthless for bedding, and troublesome in the manure 
pile. Many farmers find difficulty in feeding cut cornstalks, since some- 
times the cows refuse to eat them. In a few cases we have found that 
the sharp ends of the cornstalks, when cut certain lengths, injure the 
mouths of the cows. This difficulty can usually be avoided by chang- 
ing the length of cut. Judging from experiments at the Kansas sta- 
tion, it is possible that in the lower portions of the corn belt cornstalks 
are so coarse and poor that they are not useful for feeding dairy cows, 
but farther north I am sure they will pay for the cutting. Where they 
are not well eaten the cause is often due to overfeeding, or endeavoring 
to have the cows live on too limited a variety of foods. Keep the 
mangers clean and feed the cut fodder with care, and usually very little 
will be left over, and that only the coarsest portion. Experiments at 
the Wisconsin station show that with the varieties of corn raised there 
much more of the cut stalks will be eaten than if fed uncut under the 
same conditions. 

Where corn is cheap and labor high, uncut shock corn of small varie- 
ties can be very successfully fed to dairy cows. It is surprising to see 
how they thrive on it, and the undigested grain can be gathered from 
the droppings by lively shotes. This system is somewhat crude, but 
not without advantages in the pioneer stage of dairying in the corn 
belt, where it helps to educate the farmers to a proper appreciation of 
the value of corn and corn stover for dairy cows. After a time this 
practice should give way to more improved methods commonly followed, 
in the older dairy sections. 

Much has been written in regard to wetting hay, straw, and stalks, 
putting meal thereon and mixing up before feeding. The English are 
accustomed to pulp or slice roots, mix these with cut hay or " chaff," 
as they call it, and then sprinkle the meal over the mass, shoveling it 
over. Such mixtures must be very palatable to the cow, and give ex- 
cellent results. In most dairy sections we have not yet progressed so 
far in our feeding methods, and the simpler practice of giving hay and 
grain separately will probably be continued by many, as it gives very 
fair results. 

The best general rule to follow is to put the food of a cow into just 
that form which seems most palatable to her. Many labor under the 
mistaken idea that food will not be properly mixed in the rumen unless 
it is mixed before beiug swallowed. Examinations of the rumens of 
cows fed experimentally show that different kinds of feed are all inti- 



THE FEEDING AND MANACxEMENT OF CATTLE. 473 

inately mixed together within half an hour after they have been swal- 
lowed, and that the mixing is much more thorough than is possible to 
get in the feed -box. It is better to let the appetite of the cow govern 
in that matter rather than the theory of the feeder. 

FOODS FOR DAIRY COWS. 

First in the requisites place palatability, next quantity, and finally 
proper proportions of nutrients, being guided somewhat by the German 
standard as expressed in Tables I and II. From the large amount of 
protein represented by the cheese part of the milk and the albumen, it 
is certain that a very considerable amount of protein should enter into 
the composition of the food. The carbohydrates supply the material 
out of which the milk-sugar and fats are elaborated, though of course 
these can also be made from the protein substances. The protein and 
fat of the foods are the more expensive portions, and for that reason we 
should be careful not to feed them in more liberal allowance than is 
actually needed. 

Among grain foods for the dairy the following are worthy of special 
mention : 

Com. — Indian corn is a most valuable food and one of the cheapest 
used in the dairy, and the quality of milk and butter produced from it 
usually above question. Corn meal is a very concentrated food and packs 
too closely in the stomach, and should be extended with something 
coarser, like bran, if possible. As the table shows, corn does not furnish 
much protein. 

Oats are probably the best single food on the list, and are just as 
valuable in the cow stable as in the horse barn. At this station we 
have found oats to have the value of about 10 per cent in excess of an 
equal weight of bran for producing milk and butter fat. Oats contain 
much ash and a larger proportion of protein than corn, and should have 
a prominent place in the feed bin of our dairy farms whenever the cost 
is not too high. 

Barley is a very common food for cows in the Old World, and is used 
to considerable extent on the Pacific coast. It should be crushed by 
rolling rather than grinding. 

Wheat is sometimes so low in comparison with other grains that it can 
be fed very profitably. Frequently on the Pacific coast it is the cheap- 
est dairy food in the market. 

Peas. — Table I shows peas to contain a very large amount of protein, 
and they are an excellent food for dairy cows. Being very rich in pro- 
tein, but a few pounds should be used in a ration. 

Cotton seed. — The progress of Southern live-stock interests depends 
largely upon an intelligent use of cotton seed, cotton- seed meal, and 
cotton-seed hulls. Cotton seed boiled is used at the South with good 
results, if fed in reasonable quantity. Cotton-seed meal is very rich 
and heavy and should be fed with care; it should be extended by some 



474 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

other food like bran and mixed with roughage. Cotton seed and cotton- 
seed meal have a deleterious effect on butter, if fed in large quantities, 
but with care they can be fed at any season of the year with profit. 
Cotton-seed meal should be used more generally at the North, its high 
fertilizing value after passing through the animal often being worth the 
first cost. 

Oil meal or oil calce. — This by-product of the linseed-oil factories is a 
a most valuable food in the dairy barn, though it should be used inlim 
ited quantities. It is especially useful for calves, and a couple of pounds 
a day may be fed to dairy cows with profit. It is very rich in fertiliz- 
ing elements. Oil meal to the value of $8^000,000 is annually shipped 
to the Old World. For the fertility it contains, if for no other reason 
it should all be fed in this country and dairy products instead shipped 
abroad. 

Bran is one of the most valuable feeds in the dairy. From its loose, 
husky nature and cooling effect on the system, it can be given in almost 
any quantity, with little danger of overfeeding. It is the safest food in 
the dairy barn, and should always be in store to mix with corn meal or 
the ground grains, cotton- seed meal, or oil meal. We know that wheat 
rapidly depletes the soil of its fertility, and the chemist has found that 
the larger part of the fertility that goes into the wheat grain is stored 
near the outside of the grain in what becomes the bran on grinding. A 
few farmers still hold that bran is little better than sawdust. Such 
notions belong to the past generation. Exporters are studying how to 
compress bran in order to ship it abroad. This movement should be 
stopped by a lively home demand. 

Shorts and middlings are now but a finer form of bran. Sometimes 
they contain much starch and form a first-class food, but, again, they 
carry the dirt and dust of the mill, and are not so palatable as bran. 

Malt sprouts and brewers' grains, either wet or dried, are valuable 
foods, rich in protein, and often sell at such low prices as to admit of 
very profitable use in the dairy barn. Wet brewers' grains, because of 
their cheapness and abundance, are often misused. The sloppy drain- 
ings saturate the feed boxes and mangers and become putrid, endanger- 
ing the lives of the cows and those who use the milk. If fed when fresh, 
and in reasonable quantity, and the surroundings kept perfectly clean 
and wholesome, brewers' grains are an excellent food for dairy cows. 

Gluten meal, a by-product in the manufacture of starch or glucose, is 
very rich in protein. The heavy forms of this meal should be fed cau : 
tiously and extended with some light substance like bran. 

Corn stover or corn fodder is an excellent and healthful cattle food, 
being quite free from dust, and very palatable to the cow. The amount 
of nutriment which can be gathered from a cornfield, and the portion 
which remains in the stalks has already been discussed under steer 
feeding, and the reader is referred to that portion of this chapter for 
information on this important point. 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 475 

Clover hay, when well cured and bright, is especially valuable for 
dairy cows, since it furnishes a large amount of protein. 

Timothy hay is at best a poor food for dairy cows; it should be left 
for horse feeding. 

Wheat hay, oat hay, or barley hay, if cut early, are all excellent dairy 
foods, and their use should become much more common than it is. 

Millet hay is satisfactory if cut very early, before the seeds form. 

The reader is referred to Table I for the proportions of nutrients in 
the above and many other feeds used in the dairy. 

SILAGE IN THE DAIRY. 

I have already spoken favorably in regard to the use of silage in steer 
feeding; in the dairy barn it has a still more important place. Milk is 
a watery product, and the cow should be fed upon juicy, succulent 
foods. We all know the value of good pastures, but their season is 
short in this country, and in the Northern States our cows must sub- 
sist on dry feed between six and seven months each year unle'ss we can 
give them a substitute in the shape of roots or silage. Many dairymen 
have learned the value of roots, but there are thousands who for one 
reason or another will not grow them, and to such I strongly urge the 
use of silage for supplying a moist food most palatable to dairy cows. 
Silo construction has now been greatly simplified, and we have learned 
at what stage to cut the corn andhow to secure it in the silo at very low 
cost. An acre of good land will furnish from 15 to 18 tons of green 
corn stalks, many of which will carry small ears or nubbins. This ma- 
terial can be placed in the silo at small cost while full of juice, and kept 
there with little waste. From 20 to 40 and even 60 pounds of corn 
silage can be fed to each cow daily during the winter with profit. 
There is a prejudice among many dairymen that silage being somewhat 
sour will injure the teeth or the digestive apparatus of dairy cows, but 
the practical experience of thousands who use the silo show such charges 
to be without foundation. In the Indian corn crop we have the best and 
cheapest means of producing a large amount of wholesome cattle food; 
with the silo we now have the means of keeping this crop in a succulent 
condition for winter feeding so that it proves an admirable and cheap 
substitute for roots. 

There are two classes of dairy farmers. Those who desire to raise 
upon their farms about all that is fed to their stock constitute the first 
class, while those in the second are usually located on high-priced land 
near some city or railroad station, and can not grow all of the food 
required by their cows, and make heavy purchases of grain feed each 
year. The first class of dairymen here referred to will doubtless find 
it more profitable to grow such varieties of corn only, for silage, as 
will fully mature in their locality, and plant the corn so thinly that 
many ears will form on the stalks. These ears will make the silage 
very rich, and a fine ration is provided by giving a few pounds of 



476 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

clover hay and 2 or 3 pounds of bran or oats. Where it is desirable to 
raise a large amount of roughage, the farm furnishing only the bulky 
feed, let the corn for silage be of some large variety, which will barely 
mature in the given locality, planted on very rich land, so thick that 
very few ears will form. The amount of coarse feed furnished, per 
acre is enormous, but it must be backed up by a full grain ration. 
Some farmers put silage into the pit without cutting, but a good feed- 
cutter elevates it so economically, and cut silage packs so well and is 
so much more easily removed at feeding time, that cutting the corn 
should generally be practiced. 

FOOD REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 100 POUNDS OF MILK. 

The dairyman should so study the operations of his farm that he 
knows what it costs to produce a hundred pounds of milk or butter. 
The calculation is a complex one, but it is possible, and has been done 
by a good many farmers, who have found much interest and profit in 
the work. In order to give some idea of the amount of food required 
to produce a hundred pounds of milk, I have prepared a table giving 
the results of observations at experiment stations in four States and 
Canada. 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 



477 



Fat in 

100 

pounds 

milk. 


Pounds 
4.05 


4.23 
4.11 
4.54 
4.47 
5.44 

4.95 

4.08 


4.04 
3.67 
3.49 
3.25 
3.83 
4.15 
4.32 
4.54 


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22.0 
94.0 

86.4 

88.5 

91.9 
45.8 
68.2 
62.7 
20.2 
127.7 
39.6 
42.4 




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478 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 

The value of milk is mainly dependent upon its fat content, and a 
given weight from different herds varies greatly in actual value. For 
this reason in the last column of the table the amount of fat actually 
found in the milk is reported. It will be seen that this varies from 3.25 
pounds in one case to 5.44 in another. The wide variation is an admi- 
rable example in showing how important it is for the dairyman to ana- 
lyze the milk and learn just what his cows are doing. It shows us how 
little we know of the value of the herd when we stop short with merely 
weighing the milk. By weighing the feed occasionally and weighing 
the milk regularly and analyzing it from time to time the dairyman is 
in position to know just how his business is running. 

FEED WITH A GENEROUS HAND. 

All through this chapter I have endeavored to convey the impression 
that the calf, the steer, and the cow are living machines for the concen- 
tration of hay, grains, and grasses into human food. The successful 
operation of these machines depends upon the manager and is con- 
trolled by inviolable laws. Often it would seem from appearances as 
though the stockman was hostile to his cattle, and regarded every 
pound of feed given them as so much material filched from the feed bin 
to his personal loss. The man who wrote in a letter that he had a wife, 
3 children, and 6 cows to support, doubtless took just this view of the 
situation ; had cruel fate thrust 10 or 20 cows upon him he would have 
broken down entirely under the burden. With some the greatest effort 
in conducting feeding operations seems to be the study of how to save 
a little feed and still keep the animals in existence. 

The successful feeder works on exactly the opposite principle. He 
fully appreciates the fact that an animal in order to be profitable must 
be liberally fed. He understands that first of all it must have suffi- 
cient food to carry on the bodily functions and maintain life, and that 
no returns can come to the owner if only this amount of food is sup- 
plied, and that all increase in weight, fat, and all yield of milk come 
through the excess of food over the wants of the body. This leads 
him to breed and select animals with large consumptive power, a strong 
digestion, and to feed them up to their limit so long as they are useful. 

If our farmers only fully understood this first great law of stock- 
feeding and acted intelligently thereon, our stock interests would be 

revolutionized. 

> 

THE EYE OF THE MASTER FATTENS HIS CATTLE. 

I wish the above legend could be written over the door of every feed- 
ing stable in the land, for it expresses a most important truth in concise 
form. If a man has no natural liking for the stock business, it is really 
useless for him to attempt that vocation, for the art can only be acquired 
by students having a certain natural adaptation. If one has this love for 



THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 479 

the business, then by patience and study the details can be successfully 
worked out. First comes a love of order and regularity, which are of 
prime importance at all times. Stock must be fed with great regularity 
and in the same order, day by day, and all possible violent changes in 
feeding and handling avoided. The feeder should move among his 
animals quietly and in a way to win their confidence, which is easily 
acquired and as easily lost. As he passes among them daily in his 
round of duties he should have a quick eye to scrutinize every member 
of the herd and detect any little irregularity or trouble. He avoids 
disasters or serious accidents by constantly studying the little comforts 
and individual wants of the animals under his care. He feeds with a 
liberal hand, and none of his animals lie down hungry or discontented. 
The successful management of live stock is dependent upon good 
judgment in handling the cattle. If one lack this, all his other quali- 
fications count for but little. He may understand the theory of cattle- 
breeding and how to compound rations from a scientific standpoint; 
he may know the chemistry of the foods he handles and of the bodies 
of the animals to which they are fed ; he may have the literature of the 
stock business at easy command, but, if he lacks sympathy for his 
animals and judgment in handling them, all his knowledge is of no 
avail. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Abdomen, distention of 29 

dropsy of 59 

wounds of - 52 

Abortion 185 

causes of 186 

contagious, cause of 190 

noncontagious, treatment of 192 

prevention of contagious 191 

symptoms of 190 

treatment of 193 

Abscess in or on tbe ear 367 

* of the eye or its orbit 364 

lung 109 

navel 269 

treatment of 310 

Acariasis 337 

Acid poisons 68 

Aconite poisoning 72 

Actinomycosis 409 

cause of 413 

of jaw bones 20 

the tongue 23 

Afterbirth, retention of 241 

Air in veins 98 

Albuminarla 145 

Alkaline poisons 69 

Amaurosis 361 

Anaphrodisia 171 

Anasarca 335 

Anastomoses 83 

Aneurism 96 

Animal heat 86 

Anthrax 417 

in man 422 

symptomatic 423 

Apoplexy, cerebral 120 

parturient 247 

Aphtha, epizootic 391 

Appetite, depraved 33 

Arsenic poisoning 65 

Artery, dilatation of coat of 96 

taking up 312 

24697 31 481 



482 INDEX. 

Page. 

Arteries, anastomoses of 83 

and veins, wounds of 94 

character and functions of 80 

degeneration of coats of 96 

Ascites 59 

Asphyxia electrica 134 

Aspirator, use of in relieving the bladder 153 

Atrophy of the heart 94 

kidney 151 

Auscultation 102 

Back, sprain of 284 

Bacteria, definition and character 372 

Balls or xiills, administration of , 10 

Bandage, plaster of Paris, for fracture 286 

Big j aw 20, 409 

Black leg 423 

Black-quarter 423 

Bladder, eversion of 239 

palsy of neck of 153 

paralysis of 151 

rupture of 239 

spasm of neck of 151 

stone in 164 

Bleeding from the calf's navel 268 

lungs 109 

nose 104 

womb 235 

how to check 95 

Bloat 29 

of unborn calf 202 

Blood clots in walls of vagina 241 

its composition 83 

letting, operation 317 

vessels, functions of 77 

Bloody dux 40 

milk 261 

urine 143 

Blue disease 273 

Boils, nature and treatment of 334 

Bones, anatomy of 281 

broken ,. 28 

compound fracture of 289 

diseases and accidents 281 

dislocation of 295 

of an ox, number of 281 

the face, fractures of 290 

Bowels, diseases of 39 

hemorrhage of 42 

inflammation of 41 

invagination of 43 

twisting of _ 44 

worms in 44 

Brain, compression of 121 

concussion of 120 

congestion of.*. 120 



INDEX. 483 

Page. 

Brain, description of 114 

inflammation of 117 

tumors in 135 

Bran, wheat, as a cattle food 155 

Breathing, suspended, in new-born calves 267 

Broken bones. (See Fractures.) 

Bronchitis 105 

Buffalo gnat, description of 341 

history of 342 

treatment of injury by 343 

Bull, how to ring 303 

Burns and scalds 347 

Calculi, forms of 161 

in the sheath 166 

renal - 161 

ureteral 162 

urethral 164 

urinary 153 

vesical 164 

Calf, feeding 542 

Calves, constipation in 273 

diseases of young 267 

gangrene of mouth in 22 

indigestion in 37 

inflammation of joints in 271 

suspended breathing of 267 

Calving, delivery through the flank 227 

dissection of unborn calf 222 

excessive fat an obstacle to 199 

natural presentation 195 

neglected and aggravated cases 221 

obstacles to 195, 199 

palsy after 253 

premonitions of 194 

retarded by nervousness 199 

symptoms of 194 

table of wrong presentations 205 

Cancer 323 

Carbolic-acid poisoning 70 

Carbuncle 422 

Carcinoma or cancer 323 

Cartilage of the ear, excessive growth of 369 

necrosis of 359 

Casting the withers 236 

Castration, methods 316 

Catarrh 103 

malignant 426 

Catarrhal conjunctivitis 357 

Catheter, use of 152 

Cattle, infectious diseases of „ 371 

lice on 338 

Cesarean section 227 

Charbon 417 

Chest, dropsy of 109 

Choking 26,309 



484 INDEX. 

Page. 

Circulatory apparatus, structure - 77 

Coal-oil poisoning - 70 

Cold in the head . 103 

Colic 35 

Compound fracture of hone 289 

Concussion of the hrain 120 

Congestion of the liver 52 

lungs - 109 

testicles 174 

udder 253 

Conjunctivitis, catarrhal 357 

Constipation • 44 

in calves 273 

Contagious abortion, cause of 190 

treatment of 193 

mammitis 256 

pleuro-pneumonia 377 

Copper poisons 67 

Corneal dermatoma 361 

Corneitis - 358 

Cornstalk disease : 16 

Corrosive suhlimate poisoning 69 

Costiveness 273 

in young calves 44 

Cow, dairy 466 

maternity of 468 

ration for 467 

Cowpox 259 

Cows, food for dairy 473 

in calf, treatment of 182 

precautions in purchasing 259 

shelter for - - - 469 

Cramp colic 53 

Cramps of the hind limbs 183 

unborn calf 202 

Cud, loss of 32 

Cyanosis 273 

Cysts (dermapilous and sebaceous) 335 

Dairy management 469 

recording and analyzing milk in 470 

regularity and kindness in : - 469 

silage in - 475 

Dandruff 334 

Dehorning 290,304 

Diabetes insipidus - - - - 142 

mellitus - - - - - 146 

Diarrhea 39 

in calves - 37, 274 

Difficult parturition 195 

Digestive organs, diseases of 15 

Diseases, infectious, of cattle : - - 371 

of bones ' 282 

the bowels - - 39 

foot - 349 

heart and blood-vessels 77 



INDEX. 485 

Page. 

Diseases of the liver and spleen 52 

nervous system Ill 

peritoneum 57 

pharynx and gullet 24 

shin 325 

urinary organs 137 

Disinfectants, how to use 375 

Disinfection, agents of 375 

Dislocations 295 

of stifle joint '. 295 

Diuresis 142 

Draughts or drenches, how administered 9 

Drinking cold water, indigestion from 35 

to excess 17 

Dropsy of the abdomen . . . ". 59 

of calf 201 

chest 109 

hind limbs 183 

membranes of the fetus 183 

navel 272 

womb 183 

Dry murrain . . . : - 34 

Dysentery 40 

Ear cartilage, disease of 369 

diseases of 367 

enchondroma of 369 

foreign bodies in 368 

frost bitten 368 

fungoid growths on 368 

inflammation of internal 367 

laceration of 369 

scurfy 368 

Early maturity, advantages of 465 

Ecthyma 333 

Ectropion 363 

Eczema 330 

Electuaries, how composed 10 

Elephantiasis 335 

Embryotomy 222 

Emphysema, heaves _ 108 

wind under the skin 348 

Encephalitis 117 

Endocarditis 92 

Enemata or injections 11 

Enlargement of the heart 93 

Enteritis, from misplacement of bowels 43 

hemorrhagic 42 

mercurial 42 

simple 41 

Entropion 362 

Epilepsy 121 

Epistaxis 104 

Ergotism 73 

Eruptions of the skin 329 

Erythema 328 



486 INDEX. 

Page. 

Eversion of the bladder 239 

womb 236 

Excess of food and drink 16 

Extra-uterine gestation 184 

Eye, abscess on 364 

anatomy of 353 

foreign bodies in 363 

fracture of the orbit 364 

tumors of the orbit 365 

ulcers of 359 

worm in 361 

Eyeball, dislocation of 366 

inflammation of 357 

tumor on 360 

hairy 361 

Eyelashes, inversion of 362 

Eyelid, eversion of 363 

inversion of 362 

laceration of 363 

tumors of ; 363 

Fatty degeneration of the heart 94 

Feed and care of young stock 454 

cutting for animals 472 

Feeding and management . 439 

methods of, for dairy 471 

standards, table of 449 

stuffs, average composition of 444 

the calf 542 

Feet, deformities of 252 

pricks and wounds of 352 

tumors on 351 

Fetlock, sprain of 283 

Fever, milk (parturient) 247 

splenetic or Texas 428 

Fibroma, fibrous tumor 321 

interdigital 351 

Filaria oculi 361 

Fistula in teat 264 

Fleas 345 

Flies and mosquitos 345 

Flooding in the cow 235 

Fluke disease 55 

Food materials for dairy cows 473 

composition of 441 

improper 15 

required to produce 100 pounds of milk 477 

Foot-and-mouth disease 391 

Foot, diseases of 349 

rot 350 

soreness , 349 

Foul in foot 350 

Founder 349 

Fractures, nature and causes of 284 



INDEX. 487 

Page. 

Fractures of the hones of the face 290 

limbs 294 

jawbone 291 

knee and hock 294 

pelvis 292 

point of the hip 293 

ribs 293 

shank bones 294 

skull 291 

spinal column 291 

symptoms of 285 

treatment of 285 

Frostbite 348 

Frostbitten ears 368 

Frozen food, effects of 16 

Furunculus 334 

Gangrene of mouth of young calves 22 

Garget 253 

Gastric catarrh 37 

Gastro-enteritis 37 

Generative organs, diseases of 169 

Genital organs, vesicular eruption of 395 

German feeding tables 440 

Gestation, extra-uterine : 184 

period of, for cows 181 

Gonorrhoea 177 

Gorging with food, effects of 31 

Grass staggers 34 

Gravel. (See Calculi.) 

Grub in the skin 339 

Gullet, opening the 309 

wounds and injuries of 28 

Gut-tie 50 

Hsemaglobinuria 143 

Hematuria 143 

Haemoptysis 109 

Hair balls in the stomach 34 

Haw, inflammation of 366 

Hard water, for drinking purposes 17 

Heart, anatomy and physiology of 77 

atrophy of 94 

disease 87 

enlargement of 93 

fatty degeneration of 94 

inflammation of membrane surrounding 92 

injury to by foreign bodies 89 

misplacement of 94 

palpitation of 88 

Bounds 87 

tumors in 93 

valves of 93 

Heat, prostration from 122 

Heaves 108 

Heel, ulceration of 351 



488 INDEX. 

Page. 

Hemiplegia 126 

Hemorrhage 95 

Hemorrhagic enteritis 42 

Hepatitis 53 

Hernia of the bowel 46 

rennet or fourth stomach 46 

rumen 45 

uterus 183 

peritoneal 50 

umhilical 48 

ventral 45 

Hip, sprain of 284 

Hoof, loss of 350 

split 351 

Horn fly {Hcematobia serrata) 343 

Horns, removal of 290 

Hot water, injections of 11 

Hoven 29 

Humane treatment of animals 301 

Hydrocephalus of calf 200 

Hydrophohia 396 

Hydrothorax 109 

Hygiene of the pregnant cow 181 

Hypertrophy of the heart 93 

kidney 151 

Impetigo larvalis and labialis 332 

Incontinence of urine 153 

Indian corn for feeding steers 456 

Indigestion from drinking cold water 35 

in calves 30,273 

third stomach 34 

Infectious disease, definition of 371 

diseases of cattle 371 

Inflammation of arteries 96 

the bowels 41 

brain ...'. 117 

cornea 358 

haw 366 

heart 92 

heart-case 90 

internal ear 367 

joints 296 

in calves 271 

kidneys 146 

lining membrane of heart 92 

liver 53 

lungs 107 

mouth 21 

navel veins 269 

parotid gland 25 

penis from bruising 176 

sheath 174,176 

skin 328 

spleen 55 

stomach 37 



INDEX. 489 

Page. 

Inflammation of the testicles 174 

udder 1 253 

contagious 256 

urachus 268 

urethra 177 

vagina 244 

veins 97 

womb 245 

Inflammatory diseases of the skin 328 

Inhalation of medicines 11 

Injections by the vagina 11 

of medicinal agents 10 

hot water 11 

subcutaneous 13 

Injuries to the spinal cord .'. 123 

Inoculation, protective, for anthrax 422 

Insufflation of medicinal agents 12 

Interdigital fibroma 351 

Intestines. (See Bowels.) 

Invagination of the bowels 43 

Iodide of potassium as a remedy for actinomycosis 414 

Itch • 337 

Itching 327 

Ixodes 345 

Jaundice 52 

Jawbone, fracture of 291 

swelling of 20 

Joint-ill in calves 271 

Joints, structure of 296 

Kelis < 336 

Keratitis 358 

Kidney of the ox 140 

parasites of 150 

stone in 161 

tumors of 151 

Kidneys, inflammation of 146 

Labor pains before the time 196 

Lacerations and ruptures of the vagina 240 

Laminitis 349 

Laparotomy 227 

Laryngitis 104 

Lead poisoning 66 

Leucorrhoea 244 

Lice on cattle 338 

Ligating a blood-vessel 96 

Lightning stroke 134 

Lipomata or fatty tumor 322 

Lips, wounds and contusions of 18 

Liver, congestion of 52 

diseases of 52 

inflammation of 53 

Local poisoning 74 

Lockjaw 126 

Loco- weed, its effects 73 

Lousiness 338 



490 INDEX. 

y/ Page. 

Lumpy-jaw 20, 409 

Lungs, abscess of 109 

actinomycosis on 411 

Weeding of 109 

congestion of 109 

inflammation of 107 

tuberculosis on 402 

Luxation of the patella 295 

Lympbatic glands, inflammation of 84 

Malignant catarrb 426 

pustule 422 

Mammitis, contagions 256 

simple 253 

Mange 337 

Medicines, bow administered 9 

inhalation of 11 

injection of 10 

insufflation of 12 

Membrana nictitans, inflamed 366 

Mecurial poisoning 69 

Metritis 245 

Metro-peritonitis 245 

Milk as a medium for conveying disease 257 

bloody 261 

blue 261 

duct, closure of 263 

constriction of 264 

fever 247 

fistula 264 

food required to produce 100 pounds of 477 

from tuberculous cows 407 

influence of the cow's food on 275 

stringy 261 

suppression of , 261 

Monstrosity in the calf 203 

causes of 204 

Moor-ill 143 

Morphine poisoning 71 

Mouth, diseases of 18 

inflammation of 21 

Murrain, dry 34 

red 40 

Musty fodder a cause of abortion 188 

Myocarditis 92 

Navel, abscess of the 269 

bleeding, on new-born calf 268 

discharge of urine through 268 

dropsy of 272 

string, displaced in calving 200 

veins, inflammation of 269 

Necrosis of the bony orbit 365 

Needles in cow's heart 90 

Nephritis 146 

Nerves, afferent and efferent 112 

the cranial 115 



INDEX. 491 

Page. 

Nervous system, diseases of HI 

Nettle rash 329 

Nose-bleed 104 

Nutrients required for farm animals 448 

Nymphomania 170 

Obstructions in teat 262, 263 

(Edema 335 

(Esophagotomy 309 

OEstriasis 339 

Ophthalmia, simple 357 

specific 357 

Opium poisoning 71 

Orbital and periorbital abscess 364 

Orbit of the eye, fracture of 364 

necrosis of 365 

tumors of 365 

Orchitis 174 

Osteo-sarcoma 323 

Otitis 367 

Ovum, inclosed 202 

Oxalic acid poisoning 69 

Oxen, surgical operations on 302 

treatment of, for calculi 162 

Palpitation 88 

Palsy after calving 253 

of neck of bladder 153 

Papillary growths on the penis 177 

Paralysis 124 

of one side of body 126 

the bladder 151 

hind parts in pregnancy 184 

nerve of sight 361 

Paraplegia 124 

Parasites of the kidney 150 

Parotitis 25 

Parturient apoplexy 247 

Parturition, difficult 195 

Pastures, steers on 455 

Patella, luxation of 295 

Paunch, distention of, with food 31 

gas in 29 

opening of 310 

Pelvis, fracture of 292 

too small to pass a calf 199 

Pemphigus 333 

Penis, swelling of 178 

ulcers on 178 

warts on 177 

wounds of 178 

Percussion 102 

Pericardium or heart case 79 

Pericarditis 90 

Peritonitis 57 

Pharyngitis 24 

Pharynx and gullet, diseases of 24 



492 INDEX. 

Page. 

Phlebitis 97 

umbilical 269 

Phosphorous poisoning 68 

Phthiriasis 338 

Pica 33 

Pityriasis 334 

Pleurisy 106 

Pleuro-pneumouia, cause of 379 

contagious 376 

incubation 380 

post-mortem appearances 382 

prevention and treatment of 386 

Pneumonia 107 

Pneumothorax 110 

Poisoning, aconite 72 

arsenic 65 

carbolic acid 70 

coal oil 70 

general symptoms of 64 

treatment of 65 

lead 66 

local 74 

loco-weed 73 

opium 71 

strychnine 72 

Poisons, acid 68 

action of 63 

alkaline 69 

copper 67 

dietetic 73 

mercurial 69 

phosphorus 68 

vegetable 69 

zinc 67 

Polypi 322 

pharyngeal 26 

Polypus on the vagina or uterus 178 

Powders, medicines in form of 10 

Pregnancy, duration of 181 

signs of 179 

Pregnant cow, hygiene of 181 

Premonitions of calving 194 

Presentations of the calf, wrong 205 

Pricks and wounds of the feet 352 

Prolapsus vaginse 183 

Prolonged retention of the fetus 185 

Protozoa of Texas fever 372 

Pruritis 327 

Psoriasis 331 

Pterygium 362 

Pulmonary congestion ." 109 

Pulse 84 

frequency of 101 

jugular 84 

where to feel 86 

Rabies 396 



INDEX. 493 

Page. 

Ration for dairy cow, table of 450 

Rations, balanced. 458 

Red murrain 40 

water 143 

Renal calculi 161 

Respiratory organs, diseases of 101 

Retained afterbirth 241 

Retention of the fetus, prolonged 185 

Rheumatism 297 

Rickets in calves 280 

Rinderpest _ 389 

Ringing the bull 303 

Ringworm 345 

Roberts, Prof. Isaac P., system of covered yards 469 

Rumenotomy : 310 

Rumen, puncturing, for hoven 310 

Rupture (See Hernia). 

of the bladder 239 

navel 48, 271 

vagina 240 

womb 240 

St. John's wort, etc., effect on calves 332 

Salivation 18 

Sanitary regulations for Southern cattle 437 

Satyriasis 170 

Scabies 337 

Scours in calves 274 

Scurf 334 

Scurfy ears 368 

Setons 308 

Sheath, inflammation of 174, 176 

Shelter for farm animals 468 

Silage and roots for feeding cattle 459 

for feeding cattle 459 

in the dairy 475 

Simulium pecuarum 341 

Skeleton of the adult bovine 281 

Skin, anasarca of 335 

applying medicines to 12 

diseases 325 

eruptions of 329 

faulty secretions and abnormal growths of 334 

inflammation of 328 

parasitic diseases of 337 

pustules on 333 

structure and functions of 325 

thickening of 335 

wind under 348 

wounds of 346 

Skull, fracture of 291 

Slinging oxen for shoeing 176 

Slinking of the calf 185 

Smutty corn as food 16 

Snake bites 74, 346 

Sore mouth 18 

throat 24 



494 INDEX. 

Page. 

Southern cattle fever 428 

Spasm of neck of bladder 151 

Spavin 296 

blood or bog 297 

bone 297 

Spaying 317 

Spinal column, fracture of 291 

cord 113 

injuries to 123 

Spleen, diseases of ■. 52 

inflammation of 55 

Splenitis 55 

Split hoof 351 

Sprains 282 

of the back 284 

fetlock 283 

hips 284 

Staggers 117 

Staphyloma - 360 

Steer feeding 455 

Sterility, causes 172 

Stifle, pseudo-luxation of 295 

Stings of insects and reptiles 347 

Stomach, diseases of 29 

gorged 29 

tympanites of 30 

Stomatitis 21 

gangrenous 22 

Stone (See also Calculi). 

in the bladder 164 

sheath 166 

ureter 162 

urethra 164 

Strabismus 362 

Strychnine poisoning 72 

Subcutaneous injection 13 

Sugar in urine - 146 

Sunstroke 122 

Suppositories, how used ._. 11 

Suppression of milk 261 

Surfeit 329 

Surgical operations 301 

Tables of food constituents 444 

Teat blocked by calculus 263 

casein 262 

opening in side of 264 

Teats, chapped 262 

warts on 262 

Teeth, irregularities of 19 

caries of 20 

Temperature, how to ascertain -. 86, 102 

Testicles, congestion and inflammation of 174 

Tetanus 126 

Throat, sore 24 

Thrush in sucking calves 280 

Thumps 88 



INDEX. 495 

Page. 

Ticks 345 

as cause of Southern fever 433 

Tinea tonsurans and tinea favosa 345 

Tongue, induration of 23 

Tracheotomy, operation of 308 

Trichiasis 362 

Tuberculosis, bovine, and the public health 406 

nature of 401 

symptoms of 404 

Tumor of an artery 96 

on the eyeball 360 

Tumors, cystic 323 

fatty 322 

fibrous 321 

of the brain 135 

eyeball or orbit 365 

eyelids 363 

heart 93 

kidney 151 

knees 323 

pharynx 26 

tongue 323 

on unborn calf 202 

osseous 323 

Twin calves, difficult birth of 207 

Tympanites 29 

chronic 30 

Udder, congestion of 253 

contagious inflammation of 256 

tubercular disease of 403 

Ulceration of the heel 351 

Ulcers of the cornea 359 

penis 178 

Umbilical phlebitis 269 

Umbilicus. (See Navel.) 

Urachus, persistent 268 

Ureteral calculi 162 

Urethra, inflammation of 177 

Urethral calculus 164 

Urinary calculi 153 

classification of . ." 159 

constituents of ». 157 

disorders, general symptoms 142 

organs, diseases of 137 

Urine, albumen in 145 

bloody 143 

composition of cow's 138 

escape of through calf's navel 268 

excessive secretion of 142 

incontinence of 153 

retention of 151 

sugar in : 146 

Urticaria 329 

Uterus, breach of 183 

Vagina and uterus, polypus on 178 

blood clots in walls of 241 



496 INDEX. 

Page. 

Vagina, inflammation of 244 

lacerations and ruptures of 240 

protrusion of 183 

Vaginitis 244 

Valves of the heart 93 

Varicose veins 97 

Venereal desire, diminution or loss of 171 

excess of 170 

Veins, air in 98 

inflammation of 97 

Verruca 336 

Vertebrae, fracture of 291 

Vomiting 32 

Vesical calculus 164 

Vesicular eruption of genital organs 395 

Warbles 339 

Warts 321,336 

on the penis 177 

teats 262 

Water blisters 333 

in head of calf 200 

Wens 335 

White scour in calves 37 

Wind colic 29 

under the skin 348 

Windpipe, cutting into 308 

Withers, casting the 236 

Womb, diseased, induration of month of 197 

dropsy of 183 

eversion of 236 

excision of 238 

flooding of 235 

inflammation of 245 

rupture of the 240 

twisting of the neck of. 197 

"Wooden -tongue" 23 

Wood-evil 34 

Wood-ill 143 

Worm in the eye 361 

Worms, fluke 55 

intestinal 44 

Wounds and contusion of the lips .*. 18 

dressing and care of 314 

incised 312 

lacerated 314 

punctured 313 

of the abdomen 52 

Wounds of the arteries and veins 94 

gullet 28 

penis 178 

Yards, Prof. Eoberts's covered - 469 

Yellows 52 

Young stock, feed and care of 454 

Ziuc poisons 67 

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